BROWN'S SERIES 



OF 



English Grammars 



THOROUGHLY REVISED 



By HENRY KIDDLE, A.M., 

LATE STl'T. OF SCHOOLS OF NEW YORK CITY. 



A 



S the PUBL1 
that these 
REVISED AND 



Practical 
Clearnes 
Fullness 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



Chap*^_FCopynght No*_ 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



ire in announcing 
en THOROUGHLY 
EMANDS. 



LI IC OCVCIUI 



Parts. 



Complete maoorciuuii m cu 

A Logical Accuracy and Perfectness of Definition. 

Forms and Formulas of Analysis, Syntactical Reso- 
lution and Correction, as Exact and Exhaustive 
as the Demonstrations of Geometry. 

Definite Presentation of the Subject- Matter. 



CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED. 



WILLIAM WOOD & COMPANY, Publishers, 
NEW YORK. 



BROWN'S GRAMMARS. 

The Standard Authority in the Correct Use of the 
ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

The School Series comprises : 

BROWN'S LANGUAGE LESSONS, 

170 pages. 

THE FIRST LINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

156 pages. 

THE INSTITUTES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

345 pages. 



A VALUABLE BOOK OF REFERENCE. 

the grammar of 

English Grammars, 

With an Introduction, Historical and Critical, 

BY 

GOOLD BROWN. 

Tenth Edition— Revised and Improved. 

WILLIAM WOOD & COMPANY, Publishers, 
NEW YORK. 



HUMAN 
ANATOMY PHYSIOLOGY 

AND 

HYGIENE 



WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE EFFECTS 
OF STIMULANTS AND NARCOTICS 



FOR USE IN PRIMARY AND INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS 



BY 

CHARLES H. MAY, M.D. 

Chief -of -Eye- Clinic and Instructor in Ophthalmology, Vanderbilt Clinic, College of 
Physicians and Surgeons, Medical Dept., Columbia College, N. Y; Professor of 
Diseases of the Eye and Ear, College of Physicians and Surgeons, 
Boston; Asst. Surgeon, New YorTc Ophthalmic and Aural Insti- 
tute ; Asst. Oculist, Mt. Sinai Hospital, N. Y.; Fellow of 
the New YorTc Academy of Medicine, etc., etc. 



THIRD EDITION REVISED 
ILLUSTRATIONS PJBN^p c g|^e>Q£ORS 

WILLIAM WOOD AND COMPANY 
NEW YOEK 



Copyright, 1889, 1893, and 1S96, by 
WILLIAM WOOD AND COMPANY, 



*^ 



PREFACE. 



In the following pages the author has endeavored to pre- 
sent, in as simple and clear a manner as possible, the most im- 
portant facts relating to the anatomy, physiology, and hygiene 
of the human body. 

Of late years physicians have laid great stress upon the 
study of the prevention of disease ; and, keeping pace with 
this improvement, the laity have become better informed about 
matters pertaining to the care of the body than formerly. The 
great utility of such knowledge has led to the enactment of 
laws in New York and other States making provision for the 
study of physiology and hygiene in the public schools, with 
special reference to the effects of stimulants and narcotics upon 
the human system. Such legislative provisions are very grati- 
fying. Proper instruction to children on these subjects must 
do much to diminish the amount of sickness and raise the 
general standard of health. 

The author has endeavored to use the simplest terms com- 
patible with clearness. A certain number of technical terms 
are unavoidable ; these are denned in the glossary at the end 
of the volume. 

The lessons will be made more interesting and valuable if 
illustrated by the various tissues obtainable at the butchers' ; 
thus, the heart of a calf will serve nicely to show the general 
shape and arrangement of cavities and valves in the human 



IV PREFACE. 

heart. In the same way other organs and tissues should be 
utilized by the teacher to elucidate the various parts of the 
body. The skeleton and its different parts should be before 
the class in reciting upon the bones. 

In the description of the effects of stimulants and narcotics 
upon the human body, only such statements have been made 
as can be found in the works of standard authors on these 
subjects. It is not necessary to deviate from the truth in order 
to impress children with the great amount of bodily harm and 
misery which the extensive indulgence in stimulants and nar- 
cotics causes. 

The synopsis given at the end of each chapter is intended to 
be of use in reviews and in guiding the teacher in a systematic 
presentation of the subject. 

CHAELES H. MAY, M.D. 



THIED EDITIOK 

In this edition the author has made some desirable changes 
and additions. A number of the illustrations have been made 
even finer than at first. It has also been thought advisable to 
devote a separate chapter to the consideration of the effects of 
stimulants and narcotics. C. H. M. 

692 Madison Avenue, New York. 



New York State Edition. — In conformity with " An Act to 
Amend the Consolidated School Law Providing for the Study of 
the Nature and Effects of Alcoholic Drinks and other Narcotics, in 
Connection with Physiology and Hygiene in the Public Schools. " 
Approved June 15, 1895, to take effect August 1, 1895. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTEE I. 

Introduction. 



The Human Body the Highest Form of Living Being — What Hygiene 
Treats of — What Anatomy Teaches Us — What we Learn by the Study 
of Physiology — Differences in Meaning of Terms Anatomy, Physiol- 
ogy, and Hygiene — Different Forms of Animal Life — Life in Plants 
— Differences between Plants and Animals— Organs — Functions — 
Subdivisions of the Body — Tissues — Further Subdivisions, the Cell, 
the Fibre— Parts of the Body— The Head and Neck— The Trunk — 
The Upper Limbs — The Fingers— The Lower Limbs — Synopsis of 
Introduction — Questions on Introduction , 13 

CHAPTEK II. 

The Framework or Skeleton. 

Position in the Higher Animals — Uses of Bones : Support, Protection, 
Strength, Motion — Number of Bones — Forms of Bones : Long, Short, 
Flat, Irregular — Structure of Bone : Surface, Interior, Periosteum, 
Spaces, Color — Composition of Bone — Variations in Composition in 
Early and in Advanced Life — Care of the Skeleton : Effects of Faulty 
Position, Tight Clothing, Improperly-shaped Shoes, Stimulants and 
• Narcotics, Poor Health — Fracture of a Bone — Parts of the Skeleton : 
Head, Trunk, Upper and Lower Limbs — Bones of the Head : Cranium 
and Face — The Cranium : Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal, etc. ; 
Ragged Edges — The Face : Orbits ; Nose ; Nasal and Malar Bones ; 
Upper and Lower Jaws— Mobility of the Skull— Bones of the Trunk 
— The Spinal Column ; Sacrum and Coccyx ; Canal for Spinal Cord 
—The Pelvis — The Hip-Bone — The Collar-Bone — The Shoulder- 



VI CONTENTS. 

Blade— The Breast-Bone— The Ribs: True, False, Floating — The 
Chest : Boundaries ; the Diaphragm — The Bones of Upper Limb — 
The Humerus — The Bones of the Forearm; Radius, Ulna — The 
Bones of the Wrist and Hand : the Wrist, the Palm, the Fingers — 
The Bones of the Lower Limb— The Femur — The Patella— The 
Bones of the Leg : Tibia, Fibula — The Bones of the Foot : the Heel, 
Instep, Toes — Synopsis of Skeleton — Questions on the Skeleton. 21 

CHAPTEE III. 

The Joints. 

Definition — Uses — Subdivision — Immovable Joints — Sutures — Slightly- 
Movable Joints : General Arrangement, Ligaments, Varieties : Glid- 
ing, Hinge, Pivot, Ball-and- Socket — Accidents to Joints — Synopsis 
of Joints — Questions on the Joints 41 



CHAPTEE IV. 

The Muscles and Motion. 

Function of Muscles — Description of Muscle-tissue — Tendons — Fat — 
Uses of Fat: Warmth, Protection, Food, Appearance — Kinds of 
Muscle-tissue — Voluntary Muscles — Involuntary Muscles — Mixed 
Muscles — How Muscles Act — Influence of the Brain and Nerves — 
Ordinary Muscular Movements very Complex — Groups of Muscles — 
Facial Expressions — Number of Muscles — Shape of Muscles — Size of 
Muscles— A Few Important Muscles: Biceps, Triceps, Pectoralis, 
Diaphragm— Tendon of Achilles— The Care of Muscles— Exercise : 
Necessity, Amount, Kind, Proper and Improper — Effects of Alcohol 
and Tobacco on Muscles— Changes in Muscle by Use of Alcohol— 
Synopsis of Muscles and Motion— Questions on Muscles and Mo- 
tion 47 

CHAPTEE V. 

Food and Drink. 

Necessity for Food and Drink— Essential to Life— Difference in Food of 
Plants and of Animals — Difference in the Food of Different Animals 
—Carnivorous Animals — Herbivorous Animals— Different Kinds of 



CONTKNTS. Vll 

Food Required by Man — Fleshy Food — Vegetable Food — Starch 
Green Vegetables Fal and Fatty Food — Water— Tea and Coffee 

Necessity for Combination of all Forms of Food and Water Some 
of the Simplest Forms of Food — Meat and Fish — Bread — Milk: 
Cream, Butter, Cheese — Eggs — Variety in Food — Proper Food — Meth- 
ods of Cooking : Boiling, Stewing, Frying, Broiling, Roasting, Baking 
— Cautions Regarding Eating — Drinking-water — Dangers of Well- 
water — How Poisoning Occurs— How Avoided — Synopsis of Food 
and Drink — Questions on Food and Drink G3 



CHAPTEE VI. 

Digestion. 

Definition — The Various Organs of Digestion — Alimentary Canal — The 
Mouth — Teeth : Temporary, Permanent — Parts of Teeth — Structure 
of Teeth— Names of Teeth— Care of the Teeth— The Salivary Glands : 
Parotid, Sublingual, Submaxillary — Saliva— Effects of Chewing Gum 
—The Throat— The Tongue— The Gullet— The Stomach : Descrip- 
tion, Pylorus, Coats— Gastric Juice — Gastric Tubules — Pepsin — 
Function of Gastric Juice — Uses of Stomach : Digestion, Storehouse, 
Pulverizer — Stomachs in Certain Lower Animals — Effect of Tobacco 
on Stomach — Effect of Alcohol on Stomach — Discovery of How the 
Stomach Acts— " Heavy " and "Light" Food— The Bowels: Sub- 
divisions, Pylorus, Duodenum, Small Intestine, Large Intestine, At- 
tachment to Backbone, Coats — The Peritoneum — Motion of Intes- 
tines—Projections on Inner Surface of Intestines — The Work of the 
Intestines : Digestion — Starchy, Fatty, Fleshy Food — Openings into 
Small Intestines: From Pancreas, From Liver — The Liver and 
Gall-bladder : Position, Description — Uses of the Liver : Bile, Puri- 
fy Blood, Remove Impurities — Liver Cells — Bile — Action of Bile — 
Purification of Blood by Liver — The Liver as a Storehouse for 
Nourishment — The Unhealthy Liver : Gout— The Drunkard's Liver 
— The Pancreas: Pancreatic Juice — Uses of Pancreatic Juice — 
Absorption — Method of Absorption by Blood vessels — Lacteals — 
Habits which are Injurious to Proper Digestion : Eating too 
Quickly, Eating too Much, Eating too Many Sweets and Sours, 
Chewing Gum, Ice-water in Large Quantity, Violent Exercise after 
Meals, Severe Brain work after Meals, Bathing after Meals, Excite- 



VI 11 CONTENTS. 

ment, Alcoholic Drink, Smoking — The Spleen : Description, Posi- 
tion, Use, Enlargement — Synopsis of Digestion — Questions on Diges- 
tion 74 



CHAPTEE VII. 

The Blood and the Circulation— The Heart and the Blood- 
vessels. 

Importance of the Blood — Appearance of the Blood, Color — Composition 
of the Blood : Fluid, Globules — Blood-globules : Number — Micro- 
scope — Bed Blood-globules— White Blood-globules — The Plasma— 
The Blood of Other Animals — Use of the Bed Blood globules — Use 
of the Plasma — Difference between the Blood in Arteries and the 
Blood in Veins — Clotting of the Blood — Value of the Clotting of 
Blood — The Circulation : How Seen in the Frog — The Heart — Situa- 
tion of the Heart — Form of the Heart — The Pericardium — Cavities 
of the Heart, Grooves, Auricles, Ventricles — Function of the Heart— 
Frequency of the Heart-beats— Course of the Blood — Circulation 
through the Lungs — Changes in the Blood while Passing through the 
Lungs and through the System : The Aorta — Valves of the Heart — 
The Blood-vessels : Arteries, Veins, Capillaries — The Arteries — 
The Pulse — The Capillaries — The Veins : Differences between Veins 
and Arteries — Valves of the Veins— Rapidity of the Circulation of 
the Blood — Fainting: Its Treatment— Bleeding : Its Treatment, 
Hemorrhage — How to Have a Good Circulation — Exercise — Effects 
of Alcohol upon the Heart and the Circulation — Effect of Alco- 
hol upon the Arteries ; Apoplexy — Effects of Tobacco upon the 
Heart and Circulation, "Tobacco Heart" — The Lymphatics, Differ- 
ence between them and Arteries, Use, Course ; Lacteals — Synopsis 
of the Blood and the Circulation, the Heart and the Blood-vessels — 
Questions on Chapter VII 100 



CHAPTER VIII. 

The Organs of Voice and Breathing. 

Definitions— Course of the Inspired Air— The Organ of Voice— The Lar- 
ynx — Form and Situation — Parts of Larynx— Triangular and Circular 
Pieces — The Epiglottis — The Vocal Cords — Their Protection of the 



CONTENTS. IX 

Windpipe — The Voccil Cords in Breathing — How Sounds arc I'ro- 
daoed — The Varieties of Vocal Sounds Speaking — The Trachea or 
Windpipe — Situation and Form — The Air-passage and the Food- 
passage — Rings of the Windpipe— Branching of the Windpipe The 

Bronchi — The Lungs — Division and Situation— Shape of the Lungs 
— Structure of the Lungs — Subdivision of the Bronchi — Tlie Air- 
vesicles — The Pleura — Breathing is Involuntary — Movements of the 
Chest in Breathing — Mouth-breathing — Frequency of Breathing — 
Changes which Breathing Produces in the Blood and Tissues — 
Changes Produced in the Air by Breathing — The Poisonous Gases — 
Effects of Impure Air — Purification of the Air — How Plants Live and 
Grow — Ventilation — Simple Means of Ventilating — Absence of 
Draughts — Necessity for Sunlight — Effect of Tight Clothing upon 
Breathing — The Deformed Chest — Effects of Tobacco Smoke upon 
the Lungs and Throat — Synopsis of Organs of Voice and Respiration 
— Questions on Organs of Voice and Respiration 125 

CHAPTEE IX. 

The Heat of the Body. 

Our Body may be Compared to a Stove — Fuel — Combustion — Work, the 
Result of the Combustion of Fuel — Refuse, another Result of the 
Burning of Fuel — The Results of the Combustion of Food — Casting 
off the Refuse Materials from the Body— Food and Oxygen Produce 
Heat and Work — Warm-blooded and Cold-blooded Animals — Heat of 
the Human Body in Health — Heat of the Human Body at the Sur- 
face — Heat of the Body in Sickness — Regulation of the Bodily Heat 
— Warm Clothing — How to Keep Warm in Winter — How to Keep 
Cool in Summer — How the Body is Kept Cool in Summer — Effects of 
the Passage of Moisture into the Air — Perspiration — Ice-water in 
Summer — Sunstroke — Effects of Cold — Synopsis of the Heat of the 
Body — Questions on the Heat of the Body 143 

CHAPTER X. 

Stimulants. 

Stimulants— Definition and Examples— Drugs as Stimulants — Water and 
Food as Stimulants— How Stimulants Act— Stimulation and Depres- 
sion — Discovery of Alcohol — Derivation of Name — Alcoholic Drinks 



X CONTENTS. 

— Xon-Alcoholic Drinks — Properties of Alcohol— Spirit or Spirit of 
Wine — Uses of Alcohol —Varnish — Tinctures — Preservation of Tissues 
— Alcohol Thermometers — How Alcohol is Made — Fermentation — 
Changes produced by Fermentation — What Caused by — Minute Liv- 
ing Bodies in the Air — Germs— Varieties of — Yeast — Fermentation in 
Bread — Requisites for Fermentation — Acetous and Alcoholic Fermen- 
tation—Acetous Fermentation — Vinegar — Alcoholic or Vinous Fer- 
mentation — Distillation — Varieties of Alcoholic Drinks — Malt Liquors 
— Beer — Ale— Porter — Stout — Cider — Sweet and Hard — Wines — Va- 
rieties of Wines — Red and White — Sweet and Dry — Effervescent — 
Home-made Wines — Distilled Spirits or Liquors — Varieties of — 
Whiskey — Brandy — Rum — Gin — Absinthe — Arrack — Cordials — Bit- 
ters, Tonics, Elixirs, and Patent Medicines — Artificially Prepared Al- 
coholic Drinks —General Effects of Alcohol and Alcoholic Drinks — 
W T hen Prescribed by Physicians — Injury to the World which Alcohol 
Does — Not Ordinarily a Food — Cause of Crime — Less Used as a Med- 
icine than Formerly — Danger of Creating Alcohol Habit when Used 
as a Medicine — No Nourishment in Alcoholic Drinks — Effects 
of Alcohol Upon the Tissues and Functions of the Body — Effects 
of Alcohol Upon the Stomach— On the Intestines — On the Liver — 
On the Muscles— On the Skeleton — On the Heart — On the Blood- 
vessels — Apoplexy — Effects of Alcohol upon the Skin — On the 
Lungs — On the Nervous System — On the Brain — On the Spinal 
Cord— On the Nerves — Drunkenness— Delirium Tremens — Effects of 
Alcohol upon the Sight — On the Heat of the Body — On Muscular 
Strength and Power of Endurance — Training — Effect of Alcohol upon 
the Power to Resist Disease and to Recover from Accidents — Alcohol 
and the Expectancy of Life— Life Insurance — Moral Effects of Alco- 
holic Drink— The Alcohol Habit — Dipsomania — Alcohol is a Costly 
Vice— Alcohol and Crime. 154 

Coffee, Tea, Cocoa, and Chocolate — Desirable Stimulants — Coffee — Gen- 
eral Effects of — Disagreeable Effects of — Tea — Cocoa and Choco- 
late 182 

Coca Leaves and Cocaine — History of— Effects of — Cocaine — Effects of 
— Cocaine Poisoning — The Cocaine Habit 184 

CHAPTER XL 

Narcotics. 

Narcotics — Effects of — Examples — Tobacco— Origin of Name — History of 
Tobacco — Cultivation of Tobacco — Preparation of Tobacco— Compo- 



CONTENTS. xi 

sition of Tobacco — Nicotine — Effects of Tobacco upon the System — 
The Tobacco Babit Tobacco as a Medicine — Injurious Kffects of To 
baoco upon the Adult— Smokers' Sore Throat— Tobacco Heart— To- 
bacco Blindness — Tobacco Nervousness— Injurious Effects of Tobacco 
on the Young — Influence of Tobacco upon Muscular Strength and tin; 
Power of Endurance — Cigarette Smoking — Other Objections to the 
Tobacco Habit — Smoking is an Expensive Habit— Opium and Mor- 
phine—Preparation of Opium — Physical Properties of Opium and 
Morphine — Opiates — Laudanum— Dover's Powder— Paregoric — Ef- 
fects of Opium and Morphine — Opium and Morphine Poisoning — 
The Opium and Morphine Habit — Pangs of — Results of — Chloral 
or Chloral Hydrate— Appearance of — Uses of — The Chloral Habit 
—Effects of— Absinthe— Effects of- The Absinthe Habit— Hashish 
—Chloroform— Uses of— The Chloroform Habit 194 



CHAPTER XH. 

The Nervous System. 

Parts of the System Already Described —Functions Existing in both Ani- 
mals and Plants— Similarity in the Structure of Plants and Animals 
— Absence of Nervous System in Plants— Most Perfect Nervous Sys- 
tem in Man — Function of the Nervous System — Subdivisions of the 
Nervous System — Brain — Spinal Cord — Nerves — Examples of the 
Action of the Nervous System — Rapidity of Action of the Nervous 
System — Coverings of the Brain— Size and Weight of the Brain — 
Divisions of the Brain : Cerebrum, Cerebellum, Medulla — The 
Cerebrum — Gray and White Parts of the Cerebrum — The Cere- 
bellum — The Medulla — The Cranial Nerves : Twelve Sets— Functions 
of the Brain — Mind, Will, Thought, Memory, Intelligence— The 
Work of the Brain— Reason and Judgment — Intelligence— Training 
the Brain — The Spinal Cord — Interior of the Spinal Cord— The 
Spinal Nerves — Kinds of Nerves : Sensation and Motion — Functions 
of the Spinal Cord — Reflex Action — Examples of Reflex Action — 
Sleep— Amount of Sleep— Sleep of Children — Uses of Sleep— Time 
for Sleep — Nervousness— Wakefulness— Effects of Alcohol upon the 
Nervous System — Delirium Tremens— Effects of Tobacco upon the 
Nervous System — Effects of Coffee and Tea upon the Nervous Sys- 
tem — The Sympathetic System of Nerves — Synopsis of the Nervous 
System — Questions on the Nervous System 210 



Xll CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XIII. 

The Senses. 

Definition —Enumeration — Special Senses. 

The Sense of Touch and the Skin — Thickness — Uses of Skin— Protection 
— The Skin as the Organ of Sensation — Throwing Off Water, Salts, 
and Poisonous Matters — Regulating the Bodily Warmth — Structure 
of the Skin — Scarf-Skin — True Skin — Color of the Skin— Markings of 
Skin — Attachments of Skin — The Perspiration-tubes — The Pores — 
Perspiration — Sensible and Insensible Perspiration— Uses of the Per- 
spiration—The Oil-Tubes— The Hair— The Nails— Care of the Skin 
— The Results of Uncleanliness and Filth— Bathing — Warm Baths — 
Cold Baths— Turkish and Russian Baths — Clothing — Exercise — Cos- 
metics — Care of the Hair — Care of the Nails — Synopsis of Sense of 
Touch and the Skin — Questions on the Sense of Touch and the 
Skin 231 

The Nose and the Sense of Smell — Functions of Nose — Breathing Channel 
and Smelling Channel — Parts of the Nose— Nerves of Smell — Sense 
of Smell in Lower Animals — Cold in the Head — Use of Smell — Sweet 
Scents — Synopsis of Nose and Sense of Smell — Questions on Nose 
and Sense of Smell 242 

The Tongue and the Sense of Taste — Structure of Tongue — Uses of Tongue 
— Uses of Sense of Taste — Abuse of Sense of Taste — Synopsis of 
Tongue and Sense of Taste — Questions on Tongue and Sense of 
Taste 246 

The Eye and the Sense of Sight — Protections to the Eye — The Eyelids — 
The Eyebrows and Eyelashes — Parts of the Eye — Interior of the Eye 
— The Iris — The Muscles of the Eye — How we See— Resemblance of 
the Eye to the Photographer's Camera — The Nerves of the Eye — 
Blindness — Images— The Tears — Care of the Eyes : Rest for the Eyes, 
Fine Print, Direction of the Light, Reading while Lying Down, 
Reading in the Cars, Contagious Eye Disease, Stooping in Reading — 
Weak Sight — Old Sight — Synopsis of Eye and Sense of Sight — 
Questions on the Eye and Sense of Sight 248 



0ONTENT8. xin 

The Ear and the Sense of Hearing — Parts of the Ear— The Outer Bar 
The Middle Ear— The Bones of the Ear— The Eustachian Tube— The 
Internal Ear — The Nerve of Hearing — Sound — How we Hear — Deaf 

Mutes— Care of the Ear— Synopsis of the Ear and the Sense of Bear- 
ing — Questions on the Ear and the Sense of Hearing 

Glossary . . 2G5 

Index . . . . 279 



o > 



CHAPTER I. 
INTEODUCTION. 

1. The human body is the highest form of living being 
consequently, greater care is required to keep it in health 
and to ward off disease than is the case with the lower ani- 
mals. 

2. Hygiene. — The study of how to take care of the body 
and how to prevent disease is called Hygiene. It is a very im- 
portant subject. "An ounce of prevention is worth a pound 
of cure " is an old saying, and is certainly a true one. If we 
wish to avoid sickness we must keep our bodies healthy. In 
order to know how to do this, w T e must learn about the things 
around us which are harmful and poisonous, so as to avoid 
them ; we must become acquainted with what is good and what 
is improper in our food, what are bad habits to be avoided, 
and also the injurious effects of drink containing alcohol, and 
of tobacco and other narcotics. All these things Hygiene 
teaches us. 

3. But if we are to remember them, we must understand 
how and why it is that certain things and habits are injurious ; 
and to do this intelligently, we must know something about 
the structure of our bodies, and the manner in which they per- 
form their work — that of living. 

4. Anatomy.— The study of the form and structure of the 
different parts of the body is called Anatomy. 

5. Physiology.— The study of how ive live is called Phys- 
iology. It explains how we digest our food, how T our blood 
circulates, how we breathe, grow, and move, and perform the 



14 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

many actions — some simple, some very difficult — which are 
necessary to life. It is a very interesting subject. 

6. These three branches — anatomy, physiology, and hy- 
giene — naturally go together. To explain their differences, let 
us take an easy example : Suppose a man wishes to be an 
engineer upon a locomotive. To perform his duties well there 
are many things connected with the locomotive which he must 
understand. In the first place, he must have a knowledge of 
the different parts of which it is built. This would correspond 
to the study of anatomy in the human being. Again, he must 
understand how the locomotive works — what causes the wheels 
to move, how steam is produced, and how to regulate the 
speed. This we would liken to the study of physiology in the 
human being. Finally, such an engineer must be acquainted 
with the proper care of his locomotive — what fuel to use, how 
to keep it clean, and other things to prevent it from getting 
out of order. Similar knowledge applied to the human body, 
hygiene gives us. 

7. We have been making use of the words life and liv- 
ing beings ; it is well to understand exactly what is meant by 
these. There are a great man) different forms of life. The 
human being represents the highest form, while some very 
small animals, that cannot be seen except with the microscope, 
belong to the very lowest classes. Both are examples of ani- 
mal life. In ordinary drinking-water we can see certain of the 
lowest forms of life if we look through a drop of such water 
that has stood for some time. These animals are so small that 
they must be magnified hundreds of times before we can see 
them ; they are perfectly innocent, and do no harm when we 
drink them. 

8. There is also life in plants, but it is different from that 
in animals. Plants grow, and also breathe. A few of them 
have the power of moving some of their parts, as the Venus 
Fly-trap. The leaves of this singular plant have a part at 
the top which opens and shuts just like a steel-trap. These 



I NTRODUCTION. 15 

trap-like ends of fche leaves are usually open when the sun 
shines, and whenever a fly alights upon one of them and 

brushes against the bristles that grow from its edges, the trap 
suddenly closes, capturing the insect and usually soon depriv- 
ing it of life. 

9. Differences between Plants and Animals.— The 

main differences between plants and animals are : — 

(1.) Plant* exist upon wafer, gases, and mineral matters 
found in the earth. This would not be enough to support 
life in animals. 

(2.) Plants consist of different materials from those form- 
ing animals. 

(3.) Plants have no organs of digestion, such as possessed 
by animals. 

10. Organ. — The word organ, applied to the human body, 
means a part which performs some special work. For instance, 
the stomach is one of the organs of digestion, because it helps 
to prepare the food so that the blood can be nourished by it ; 
the eye is the organ of sight ; the tongue is the organ of 
taste. 

11. Function. — The special work which any organ of the 
body does is called its function. Thus, it is the function of the 
ear to hear, of the heart to propel the blood through the blood- 
vessels. 

SUBDIVISIONS OF THE BODY. 

12. We may divide the body in many different ways : 

(1.) Into different parts of the body ; such as the head, 
the trunk, the limbs. These again may be subdivided. 

(2.) We may further divide these into the different tis- 
sues. A tissue is one of the simple forms of material of 
which the different parts of the body are composed ; thus, 
the finger consists of bone, fat, muscle, arteries, veins. 
nerves, skin— all these are tissues. 

(3.) If we subdivide still further, and again and again, 



16 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

until we come to the very smallest part, we have the cell, 
the fibre, and a substance between these, which may be jelly- 
like or may be hard. The entire body is formed of mil- 
lions of these cells and fibres and this substance between 
them. They are all very small and Ave must use a strong 
microscope to see them. It is only when millions of them 
are gathered together that they form a mass large enough 
to be seen with the unaided eye. The cells are of dif- 
ferent shapes, but usually they are more or less rounded. 
The fibres are thread-like. 




Fig. 1. — Some Different Forms of Cells. Fig. 2. — A Collection of Fibres, Separated. 



PARTS OF THE BODY. 



13. The human body can be divided into : 

(1.) The head and neck. 
(2.) The trunk. 
(3.) The limbs. 

14. The Head and Neck. — The head has a large cavity 
for the brain, and smaller ones to receive the eyes, ears, nose, 
and tongue. It is divided into the crown (the top part), and 
the face. 



INTRODUCTION. 



17 



I 'h»vl< 
Chin 




Knee. 



Heel 

Role 



Ankle, 
Arch or Instep of Foot. 



Fig. 3.— The Names of the Different Paris of the Body. 



18 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

15. The Trunk is the part of the body between the neck 
and upper limbs above, and the lower limbs below. It has 
two large cavities : an upper one, called the chest or thorax, for 
the heart and lungs ; and a lower one, called the abdomen, for 
the organs of digestion. 

16. The Limbs are attached to the trunk. 

The upper limbs start from the shoulders. There are two, 
each consisting of an arm, a forearm, and a hand. Where the 
upper limb joins the trunk is the shoulder and the armpit. 
Where the arm and forearm meet, is the elbow. Where the 
forearm and hand meet is the wrist. The front of the hand is 
called the palm, the opposite side, the back of the hand. 
The fingers are named as follows : — 

First— Thumb. 

Second — Index finger. 

Third— Middle finger. 

Fourth — King finger. 

Fifth— Little finger. 
The lower limbs start from the hip. Each consists of a 
thigh, a leg, and a foot. Where the lower limb joins the trunk 
is the hip and the groin. Where the thigh and leg meet is the 
knee. Where the leg and foot meet is the ankle. The under 
surface of the foot is called the sole, the upper surface the arch 
of the foot, or instep. 



SYNOPSIS. 

Hygiene — Care of body and prevention of disease. 
Anatomy— Form and structure of parts of body. 
Physiology — How we live. 
Life — 1. Animals. 

2. Plants. 
Differences between plants and animals : 

1. Plants exist upon water, gases, and mineral matters 
only. 



INTRODUCTION. 19 

2. Plants consist of different materials from those forming 

animals. 

3. PJants have no organs of digestion. 

Organ A part which performs some special work. 

Function — The special work which an organ does. 
Subdivisions of the body : 

(t. Structure — Tissues, simple forms of material : 

1. Cell. 2. Fibre. 3. Substance between. 

b. Parts : 

1. Head and neck. 3. Upper limb. 

a. Crown. a. Arm. 

b. Face. b. Forearm. 

c. Hand. 

2. Trunk. 4. Lower limb. 

a. Thorax. a. Thigh. 

b. Abdomen. b< Leg. 

c. Foot. 



QUESTIONS. 

1. "What is hygiene? 2. What are some of the things which it 
teaches us ? 3. What is anatomy ? 4. What does physiology teach 
us ? 5. Mention some of the things which it explains. 6. Explain 
the differences between these three branches : Anatomy, physiology, 
and hygiene. 7. Is there more than one form of animal life? 8. 
Give examples. 9. Do plants live ? 10. How do we know this ? 
11. Do plants ever have the power to move any of their parts ? 12. 
Give an example of this. 13. Mention the differences between 
plants and animals. 14. What is an organ of the body ? 15. Give 
examples of organs. 16. What is meant by the word "function?" 
17. Give examples of this. 18. How do we divide the body? 19. 
Give an example of a part of the body. 20. What is a tissue ? 21. 
Give an example. 22. What are the very smallest subdivisions of 
the body called ? 23. What is a cell ? 24. What is a fibre ? 25. 
Name the three main parts of the body. 26. Into what parts can 
the head be divided ? 27. What is the trunk and what large cavi- 
ties does it contain ? 28. Name the different parts of the upper 
limb. 29. Name the different parts of the lower limb. 



20 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 





Back of Skull (Occiput) 



Bones of Spinal Column 
forming the Neck. 



Collar-bone (Clavicle). 

j Upper End of Bone of Arm form- 
ing the Shoulder-joint. 






.Bone of Arm (Humerus). 



Hip-bone. 

. . Inner Bone of Forearm (Ulna). 
.Outer Bone of Forearm (Radius). 

J Upper end of Thigh-bone 

I forming the Hip-joint. 



l\ 



— 



Bones of the Wrist (Carpus). 

. Bones of the Hand (Metacarpus). 

j Bones of the Fingers (Pha- 
"*" 1 langes of the Fingers). 



. Thigh-bone (Femur). 



.Knee-pan (Patella). 



. . Inner Bone of Leg (Tibia). 
Outer Bone of Leg (Fibula). 



Bones of Ankle (Tarsus). 

.Bones of Foot (Metatarsus). 

j Bones of Toes (Pha- 

1 langes of the Toes). 



Fig. 4.— The Skeleton, Viewed in Front. 



CHAPTEE II. 

THE FRAMEWORK 'Oil SKELETON. 

17. The Skeleton is the name given to all the bones in 
the body taken together. These form a framework around 
which all the soft parts of the body are arranged, just as the 
walls and rafters of a building support the rest of it. In man, 
and in all the higher animals, the skeleton is on the inside, and 
the soft parts are placed around this bony framework ; in some 
animals, such as the crab and the lobster, the hard shell on the 
outside corresponds to the skeleton. 

18. Uses of Bones. — The uses of bones are : — 

(1.) To give the body support and to keep it erect. This 
we see especially in the spinal column and in the lower 
limbs. 

(2.) To protect soft parts which would otherwise be easily 
injured. The brain, for instance, is enclosed in a sort of 
oval box formed by a number of flat bones joined together ; 
and in the same way, the heart and lungs are protected 
from injury by the bones which form the chest. 

(3.) To give great strength and hardness, and at the 
same time leave the part elastic, as in the wrist and 
foot. In the foot, for instance, there are many small 
bones joined together in such a way that though they are 
strong enough to bear the weight of the body, they are 
still elastic enough to allow us to jump upon the foot 
without injury. 

(4.) Lastly, bones are necessary for the purpose of mo- 
tion ; for walking and running, for grasping objects, and 



22 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



Bone of Forehead | 
(Frontal). f - 

Upper End of Bone (_ 
of Nose (Nasal), j 

Cheek Bone (Malar) . 

Upper Jaw 

Lower Jaw 



The Breast-Bone [ 
(Sternum). | 



Part of the Spinal"] 

Column forming ' 

the Lower Part f 

of the Back. J 

Upper Part of the / 

Hip-bone. 
Upper End of the 
Thigh-bone, form- V 
ing the Hip- joint. ) 



Bone of Right 
Thigh (Femur). 



Right Knee-pan ) 
(Patella). J 



Inner Bone of / 
Right Leg (Tibia). J 



Lower End of "] 
Bones of Right ! 
Leg, forming An- { 
kle-joint. J 




I Back of Skull (Oc- 
\ ciput). 



( Bones of Spinal 

■< Column forming 

{ the Neck. 

C Upper End of Bone 
of Arm. forming 
the Shoulder- 
joint. 

( Bone of Arm (Hu- 
"j merus). 
One of the Ribs 
(Eighth). 



. . . The Elbow- joint. 

j Outer Bone of 
( Forearm (Radius). 

S Inner Bone of 
1 Forearm (Ulna). 
( Lower End or Tip 
«< of the Spinal 
{ Column. 
. -.The Wrist (Carpus). 
Bones of Hand 

(Metacarpus). 
Thumb. 

Index Finger. 



Bone of Left 
Thigh (Femur). 



The Knee-joint. 



Outer Bone of Left 
Leg (Fibula). 



S Bones of Arch of 

Foot (Tarsus). 

.Bone of the Heel. 

Bones of the Toes 

(Phalanges of 

the Foot). 



Fig. 5.— The Skeleton, Viewed from the Side, with Outline of the Body. 



THE FRAMEWORK OR SKELETON. 



23 



for performing tin* many actions required of us. The 

thigh-bones and the bones of the leg, for instance, are 
necessary for walking. Bones serve as points of attach- 
ment for muscles, and are moved through the action of 
these muscles ; they simply carry out the will of the 
muscles, and these again are directed by our nerves and 
brain. 
19. Number of Bones. — There are two hundred bones in 
the human body. 




Fig. b". — The Upper End of the Thigh bone, where it Forms Part of the Hip-joint, Sawed 
through Lengthwise, Showing the Porous and Spongy Nature of Bone in Its Interior, and 
also the Commencement of the Central Canal for the Marrow. 



20. Forms of Bones- — Bones vary very much in form and 
size. Some of them are long, as the thigh-bones (Fig*. 21) ; 
others are small and short, such as the eight bones which form 
the wrist (Fig. 20) ; others are fiat, as for example the bones 
forming the skull (Fig. 11) ; finally others are of very odd and 
irregular forms, such as the bones which form the spinal 
column (Fig. 16). 



24 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 










**&&1 




Fig. 7.— A Thin Slice of Bone, Cut 
Crosswise, as Seen under the Microscope. 



21. Structure of Bone. — Each bone is surrounded by a 
very hard layer on the outside, within which the bone is looser 

and porous, having a large num- 
ber of small spaces through which 
the blood-vessels run (Fig. 7). 
The long bones, as those of the 
arm, thigh, and fingers, are hol- 
lowed out in the centre, and in 
this canal we find a fatty sub- 
stance called marrow. This hol- 
lowing out of the bone makes it 
lighter and also stronger than 
it would otherwise be. Bones are closely covered by a tough 
membrane called the periosteum, which gives additional strength 
and protection to them. They are 
of a pinkish color during life, on ac- 
count of the small blood-vessels run- 
ning through them ; when dead, the 
color of bone changes to white. 

22. If we take a thin slice of bone, 
and look at it under the microscope, 
we shall see a large number of dark 
spots, with small lines running from 
them (Fig. 7). They correspond to 
the minute spaces which exist even 
in the densest bone, and show that 
it is never entirely solid. 

23. Composition of Bone. — 
Bone is composed of two parts of a 
hard mineral substance containing a fig. 8.— The outer Bone of the 

j t i a -i . ii? j Leo 1 , Tied into a Knot after the 

great deal Ot lime, and Ot One part Hard Mineral Matter has been Dis- 

of a soft material like gelatin. The so ve ou ' y C1 ' 
mineral substance gives the bone its hardness ; the soft mate- 
rial makes it tough and elastic. To prove this we have only 
to dissolve out the mineral substance by a weak acid, and we 




THE FRAMEWORK OR SKELETON, 2f) 

find thai we can now beiul the bone in any direction because 
it has lost iis hardness; if it be long enough, we can even tie 
it in a knot without breaking it, as is shown in Fig. 8. 

'24. If, on the other hand, we put the bone into the fire, the 
gelatine will be driven off, and then the bone will have the 
same form as before, but will be very brittle and crumble very 
easily. 

25. In the baby, the bones consist very largely of a soft 
material, called cartilage. This is the reason why the baby 
cannot stand, or, if it is allowed to stand too soon, the bones 
of the legs may become bent, because they are not yet hard 
enough to bear the weight of the body. Gradually, as the 
baby grows, the hard matter is added. In young persons the 
bones are always softer than in the aged, and therefore do not 
break so easily. In old persons there is less gelatine and a 
larger proportion of the brittle mineral substance than in 
youth ; hence their bones are more brittle and are more 
easily broken, or, as the surgeons would say, are more liable 
to fracture. 

26. Care of the Skeleton. — If we wish to have erect and 
graceful bodies when we grow up, we must take care of them 
while we are young. It is while we are young that the bones 
are still soft and easily shaped. We should always remember 
to stand and sit erect, with the chest thrown forward and the 
shoulders back ; in this way we may avoid stooping and round 
shoulders. 

27. We should not wear any clothing which is too tight. How 
often do we see misshapen chests in girls because they have 
worn dresses which were too tight. Fig. 72 is the picture of a 
chest which has become deformed through tight dressing. If 
we compare it with Fig. 18, which represents a healthy chest, 
we cannot fail to notice the difference. 

28. We must be careful to get shoes of proper size ; for if 
they are too small or too pointed our feet will become deformed, 
our toes bent and crooked, and painful corns and bunions will 



26 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



result. Such deformities are shown in Fig. 10. Girls should 
not be allowed to wear high heels, as they crowd the foot into 
the front part of the shoe, thus making the toes overlap. 
Shoes with high heels do not support the weight of the body 
properly, because they throw the upper part of the body for- 
ward. Another objection to high heels is the danger of acci- 
dents from falling and of spraining the ankle. 

29. Fracture of a Bone. — When a bone is broken the ac- 
cident is quite serious, and is called a fracture. The doctor is 
called and he sets the bone, that is, he brings the two broken 





Fig. 9.— A Natural Foot. 



Fig. 10. — A Foot which has Become De- 
formed and Affected with Corns and Bunions 
as a Result of Tight and Ill-fitting Shoes. 



ends of the bone together, and keeps them in position by band- 
aging them to a piece of thin board so that they cannot be 
moved ; then a soft material is formed between the two- pieces, 
which gradually hardens and joins the two ends together. If 
properly taken care of, a broken bone becomes united again in 
several weeks, and is then as strong as it was before. If we 
happen to break a bone we must remember to keep as quiet as 
possible until the doctor arrives, so as not to move the injured 
part, and thus make matters much worse. 

30. Effects of Stimulants and Narcotics.— Drinks con- 
taining* alcohol, and the use of tobacco, may prevent our bones 



THE FRAMEWORK OR SKELETON. 27 

from growing to their natural size. Many boys Bmoke cigar- 
ettes because they think it makes them look big and manly. 
This is a mistake. No one will consider them so because they 
smoke, and the habit often results in preventing them from 

growing- to their natural size. The bones of drunkards break 
more easily than do those of others. 

31. If we wish to be large and finely built we must try to 
preserve our health, for when the health suffers the growth of 
the bones is interfered with. 

Having studied about bones in general, let us now examine 



THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE SKELETON. 

32. We may divide the skeleton into four parts : — 
(1.) Bones of the head. 

(2.) Bones of the trunk. 

(3.) Bones of the upper limbs. 

(1.) Bones of the lower limbs. 

33. Bones of the Head. — The bones of the head taken 
together form the skull (Figs. 11, 12, and 13). The skull is 
made up of twenty-two bones. Eight of these are joined 
together at the upper and back part, forming an oval box of 
bone in which the brain is contained, and called the cranium. 
The front part of the skull, formed by the remaining fourteen 
bones, is called the face. 

31. The Cranium. — The portion of the cranium which 
forms the forehead is called the frontal bone (1, Fig. 13). In 
the lower animals, such as the dog and the cat, the forehead is 
very low and slanting ; in the negro race it is less slanting ; 
while in the white races it is almost upright. Usually the 
prominence of the forehead indicates the development of the 
brain ; and in those who have spent much time in study it is 
usually very prominent. Behind, the cranium is formed by the 
occipital bone (3, Fig. 13). Above, two bones, known as the 
parietal (2, Fig. 13), join together to form the top of the skull. 



28 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

On the side of the head, just below where the hair ends, is a 
spot called the temple ; the bone which forms this part of the 
skull is called the temporal bone (4, Fig. 13). 

35. Most of the bones of the cranium have ragged edges look- 
ing like tto teeth of a saw (Figs. 12 and 13), and when the 
bones are joined these teeth fasten the bones together just as if 
you spread out the fingers of one hand and then put them in the 






Fig. 11.— The Skull, Front View. 

spaces between the fingers of the other. In this way the bones 
are firmly united, and yet there is space between the edges so 
that they can give a little. This space is very important, for if 
these bones could not give at all. every blow upon the head 
would injure the soft, delicate brain within. The muscles, skin, 
and hair on the head also serve to break the force of blows. 

36. The Face. — Looking at the skull in front (Fig. 11) we 
see two large openings just below the forehead, which are 



THE FRAMEWORK OR SKELETON. 



29 




Fig. 12.— The Human Skull, Looked at from the Side. 




Fig. IS— The Bones of the Skull Separated. 1, Frontal; 2, Parietal: 3, Occipital, 
4, Temporal; 5, Nasal ; 6, Malar ; 7, Upper Jaw ; b, Lachrymal; 9, Lower Jaw. 



30 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 







known as the orbits and receive the eyes. Below and between 
these is the triangular opening of the nose, bounded above by 
two small bones (5, Fig. 13) called the nasal bones. To the 

outer side and below the orbits 
are the bones which form the 
prominence of the cheeks, and 
are called the malar bones (6, 
Fig. 13). At the lowest part 
of the face are the two jaws, 
the upper (7, Fig. 13) and the 
lower (9, Fig. 13). The upper 
jaw is firmly joined to the rest 
of the skull ; the lower jaw re- 
sembles a horseshoe in shape, 
and is separate from the rest 
of the skull, though connected, 
of course, during life, to the 
sides of the face by strong 
bands and muscles. Each jaw 
has a circular row of teeth, 
about which more will be said 
in the chapter on Digestion. 
Between these two rows of teeth 
is the mouth. 

37. The skull rests upon the 
upper end of the spinal col- 
umn and is very movable, so 
that it can be bent forward or 
backward, or from side to side, 
and can be turned in any direc- 
tion. 

38. Bones of the Trunk. — The bones of the trunk are: 
the bones forming the spinal column, the hip-bone, the collar- 
bone, the shoulder-blade, the breast-bone, and the ribs. 

39. The Spinal Column- — This is the row of bones 










f* 

?:#::^ 



Fig. 14.— The Spinal Fig. 15.— The Spinal 
Column, as Seen Column, as Seen 
from Front. from the Side. 



THE FRAMEWORK <>U SKELETON. 31 

which extends from the skull above fco the lower limbs below. 
There are thirty-three of theae bones piled one upon another; 

but in the grown person there are fewer, because the lowest, 
nine bones unite so as to form but two ; of these five form the 
upper one, called the sacrum, and four unite to form the tip of 
the spinal column, called the coccyx. There are thus really 
but twenty-six separate bones in the spinal column. Each of 
these twenty-six bones is called a vertebra, and all of them 
taken together are known as 
the vertebne. The spinal col- 
umn is often called the back- 
bone, on account of its extend- 
ing along the middle of the 
back. The vertebrae are con- 
nected by circular plates of 
gristle, or cartilage, and by 
fibres. This cartilage and the 
fibres are elastic, and thus 
it is that our backbone is 
very movable — we can bend 
it in any direction or twist it 
because the cartilage gives. 
This also explains why it is 
that at night we are a trifle 

. . Fig. 16.— Three Vertebrae from the Lower 

shorter than m the morning, Part of the Spinal Column, Separated. 

for the weight of the body has 

caused these plates of cartilage between the vertebrae to be 
compressed slightly, while after a rest during the night, they 
regain their usual thickness. There is an opening in each of 
the vertebrae, and when they are all in position, these openings 
connect and form a canal, the spinal canal, which runs all 
through the backbone. This canal holds the delicate spinal 
cord, from which nerves emerge through small openings on 
each side of the spinal column. At the upper end of the spinal 
canal it communicates with the cavity of the skull by means of 



32 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

a large oval opening, through which the spinal cord and the 
brain are directly continuous. If you run your finger along the 
middle of the back, you can feel projecting points ; these are 
the tips of the vertebrae. 

40. The Hip-bones (H, Fig. 21 and Fig. 17) are the two 
large and strong bones which are placed on each side of the 
lower end of the spinal column, forming with it a sort of basin 
which is called the pelvis. On the outer side of each hip-bone, 



Fig. 17. — The Pelvis, formed by the Lower End of the Spinal Column and the Hip bones. 

at about its middle, will be noticed a deep, round depression ; 
in this fits the upper end of the thigh-bone. 

41. The Collar-bone, or Clavicle (Figs. 4 and 19, C), is 
the curved bone which we feel at the upper part of the chest in 
front, being connected with the breast-bone at its inner end. 

42. The Shoulder-blade, or Scapula (Fig. 19, B), is the 
large triangular bone which we feel at the upper part of the 
chest behind. It lies behind the upper ribs. At its outer 
angle is a round depression into which the upper, ball-like end 
of the bone of the arm fits. 

43. The Breast-bone, also called the sternum (Fig. 19, S), 



THE FRAMEWORK <>K SKELETON. 33 

is a flat bone, broad above and gradually tapering toward 

its lower cud. It forms a strong guard to the front of the 
chest. Along its edges the ribs are attached on each side. 

44. The Ribs. — There are twenty-four ribs, twelve on each 
side. They are long, slender, curved bones, which form the 
outer boundary of the chest. They are very elastic. All the 
ribs are joined behind to the vertebrae of the back. The first 
seven are attached to the breast-bone in front, and are called 



2 gk 






Fig. IS.— The Chest, or Thorax. 

true ribs ; the last five are not attached to the breast-bone 
in front, and are called false ribs; the upper three of these, 
namely, the eighth, ninth, and tenth, are connected with carti- 
lage in front, but the last two are entirely free in front, and 
are called floating ribs. 

45. The Chest, or Thorax (Fig. 18).— It has already been 
explained that this is the large cavity just below the neck which 
serves to hold the heart and lungs. These organs are of great 
importance, and are nicely boxed in by the bones we have just 



34 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



~~B 



—A 



studied ; namely, the breast-bone in front, the ribs on each 

side, the collar-bone above, and the backbone behind. There 

(r are, of course, spaces between 

S these different bones, but in 

the living body they are filled 

with muscles. A flat sheet of 

muscle-tissue also bounds the 

chest below T and separates it 

from another cavity, situated 

just below it, the abdomen. 

This muscular partition is 

called the diaphragm. 

46. Bones of the Upper 
Limb™ — These are: the bone 
of the arm (humerus) ; the two 
bones of the forearm (radius 
and ulna) ; and the small bones 
forming the hand. 

47. The Bone of the Arm 
is a single bone, known as the 
humerus. It is a strong bone 
and extends from the shoulder 
to the elbow. Its upper end 
has an enlargement, shaped 
like a ball, which fits into the 
cup-shaped depression, seen at 
the outer angle of the shoulder- 
blade. 

48. The Bones of the 
Forearm. — There are two 
bones in the forearm, an outer, 
the radius, and an inner, the 
yXna. They are placed side be- 
side, the space between them 

filled with a membrane 





//Mi 



-H 



\ \ 



Fig. 19.— The Bones of the Upper Limb, 
S, Breast-bone (Sternum) ; C, Collar-bone 
(Clavicle); JB, Shoulder-blade (Scapula) ; A, 
Bone of Arm (Humerus) ; F, Bones of Fore- 
aim (Radius, TJlna) ; W, Bones of Wrist ; fl, 
Bones of Hand. 



being 



THE FRAMEWORK OR SKELETON. 35 

and muscles. They extend from the elbow to the wrist. In 
twisting the forearm the radius revolves around the ulna, which 

IS the less movable of the two. 
41). The Bones of the Wrist and Hand.— There are 

twenty-seven bones in each hand. The band may be divided 
into three parts : The wrist, or car- 
pus; the palm, or metacarpus ; and 
the Jingers, or phalanges. The wrist 

is the most solid part and is made 
up of eight small bones, more or 
less rounded or cubical in shape, 
closely held together by tough 
bands. This arrangement serves to 
make the wrist very strong and 
still very light. The bones form- 
ing the palm of the hand are five 
in number. Each finger has three 
bones, the end of one being joined 
to that of the other, except the 
thumb, which is shorter and has 
but two such phalanges ; this ar- 
rangement of the bones of the fin- 
gers allows them to move very 
dexterously. 

50. Bones of the Lower 
Limb. — These comprise the thigh- 
bone (femur), the bones of the leg Fig 20.-The Bones of the Wrist and 

Hand. Above is also seen the lower 
(tibia and fibula), the knee-pail (pa- ends of the radius and ulna, taking 
; ' part in forming the wrist-joint. 

tella), and the bones oi the foot. 

51. The Thigh-bone, or Femur, is the largest and strong- 
est bone in the body, and is surrounded by more muscle than 
any other bone. Where it is attached to the hip-bone it has a 
large spherical part called its head, and this forms an angle with 
the rest of the bone by a part called the neck. Below, the thigh- 
bone joins with the bones of the leg and with the knee-pan. 



36 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

£ 52. The Knee-pan, or Patella, 

/ is the small, round, flattened bone 

1 which can be felt at the knee. It 

&' serves as a protection to the joint, 

and often saves it from injury in falls 

and blows. 

53. The Bones of the Leg. — 
There are two bones in each leg. The 
inner bone is the shorter and stronger 
of the two, and is called the tibia. 
The outer bone is longer and more 

" '* slender; it is called the fibula. These 

two bones, placed side by side, extend 
from the knee to the ankle. 

54. The Bones of the Foot. — 
Each foot is formed by twenty-six 
bones, one less than in the hand. 

^^, -K Seven of these form the solid back 

part of the foot, called the tarsus, 
which includes the heel ; five form the 
arch or instep, also known as the met- 
atarsus ; and the remaining fourteen 
form the toes or phalanges. Thus, it 
r?ilU-_Z w ^ be seen > that there are as many 

bones in the toes as in the fingers ; 
but the toes are much less movable, 
being simply intended for support of 
fig. 21, — the body and for walking ; however, 
the Lower when they are trained to do other 
lower' end of things, they may become almost as 
column (Sa- nimble as the fingers are. The heel is 
cyx) ; &, the the most solid part of the foot and the 
the P Thigh- strongest. The sole of the foot, be- 
( b pateiif) e ™theiBones e of the Leg tween the heel and the toes, forms an 
S^Fott.™ 111 ^ 5 * the B ° neS arch at the inner border of the foot; 



THE KIIAM EWORK oil SK ELETON. 



:;? 



which arch breaks the force of jumps from heights, [f we are 
compelled to jump from a height, there is the least disa 
able effect and danger to the body if we alight on our to< 

just behind the toes, upon the soft cushion known as the ball 
of the foot, for when we reach the ground upon the heel, the 

shock is transmitted through the entire body, and gives rise to 
a very disagreeable sensation, and possibly even to injury. 



SYNOPSIS. 



Position — 1. Internal in higher animals. 2. 

External in some of lower animals. 
Uses of the bones : 1. Support to rest of body. 
2. Protection to delicate organs. 3. Strength 
and hardness. 4. Motion, by serving as 
points of attachment for muscles. 
Number of Bones : Two hundred. 
Forms of Bones : 1. Long. 2. Short. 3. Flat. 

4. Irregular. 
Structure of Bone : ] . Outer dense layer. 2. In- 
terior porous and light. 3. Central canal 
filled with marrow in long bones. 4. Blood- 
vessels pass through it, giving pink color 
during life. 5. Covered by membrane (peri- 
osteum) . 
Composition of Bone : 

1. Animal matter — About one-third in amount. 

Larger proportion in early life. 
Gives toughness and elasticity. 
2. Mineral matter — About two-thirds in amount. 

Larger proportion in advanced life. 
Gives rigidity. 
Care of the Skeleton : 

1. Avoid faulty positions, to prevent stooping and round 
shoulders. 

2. Avoid tight clothing, to prevent deformed chests. 




38 



3. Avoid faulty shoes, to prevent deformities of the feet, corns, 
bunions, and accidents. 

4. Extensive indulgence in stimulants and narcotics (alcohol 
and tobacco) may prevent bones from growing to natural size. 

5. When general health suffers, growth of bones is inter- 
fered with. 

Fracture of a Bone : 

1. " Setting " the bone. 

2. To prevent further injury, the broken part should be kept 
quiet until the doctor arrives. 

3. Method of healing by material binding the two ends to- 
gether. 



L'ts of the skeletal 


l : — 




1. The Head 








a. Cranium 


— 1. Frontal. 








2. Parietal. 








3. Occipital. 








4. Temporal, 


etc. 


b. Face- 


-1. 


Nasal. 






2. 


Malar. 






3. 


Upper jaw. 






4. 


Lower jaw, etc. 





2. The Trunk: 

a. Spinal column (composed of 33 vertebrae) . 

b. Chest (formed by vertebrae, sternum, clavicle, and ribs). 

c. Eibs— 1. True. 

2. False (including two floating ribs). 

d. Collar-bone (Clavicle). 

e. Shoulder-blade (Scapula). 
/. Breast-bone (Sternum). 

g. Pelvis (formed by lower end of spinal column and 
hip-bones. 

3. The Upper Limb : 

a. Bone of arm (humerus). 

b. Bones of forearm — 1. Radius. 

2. Ulna. 

c. Bones of hand — 1. Wrist (Carpus). 

2. Palm (Metacarpus). 

3. Fingers (Phalanges). 



THE I'KAM EWORK OR 8K ELETON. 

4. The Lower Limb : 

a. Bone of thigh (Femur). 
h. Knee-pan (Patella). 

c. Bones of the leg — 1. Tibia. 

2. Fibula. 
</. Bones of foot — 1. Heel (Tarsus). 

2. Arch (Metatarsus). 

3. Toes (Phalanges). 



QUESTIONS. 

1. What is meant by the word "skeleton?" 2. How does the 
skeleton of a crab and lobster differ from that of man ? 3. What are 
the uses of bone ? 4. How many bones are there in the human 
body ? 5. Mention the different forms of bones. 6. Which part of 
the bone is the hardest ? 7. How does the inner part of the bone 
differ from the outer layer ? 8. What is marrow ? 9. Of what sub- 
stances is bone composed ? 10. How can you show that bone is 
made up of these two substances ? 11. How do the bones of a baby 
differ from those of a middle-aged man ? 12. How do the bones of 
an old man differ from those of a younger man ? 13. Tell something 
about the care of the skeleton. 14. Why is it necessary to sit and 
to stand erect ? 15. What happens when we wear our clothing too 
tight ? 16. What is a fracture ? 17. What effect may alcohol and 
tobacco have upon our skeleton ? 18. What effect does smoking 
have upon the size of boys ? 19. W r ill the growth of our bones 
take place properly if our health is poor? 20. Into what four dif- 
ferent parts can we divide the skeleton ? 21. What are the bones 
of the head taken together called? 22. What is the cranium and 
how many bones join to form it ? 23. How are the bones of the 
cranium united ? 24. Where is the frontal bone? 25. What does 
the prominence of the forehead show ? 26. Where are the orbits ? 
27. What is peculiar about the lower jaw ? 28. Name the bones of 
the trunk. 29. What are the vertebrae ? 30. How many are there ? 
31. How are they connected together? 32. What opening is there 
in the spinal column ? 33. What can you say about the hip-bones? 
34. Where is the collar-bone? 35. Where is the shoulder-blade ? 
36. What is another name for the breast-bone ? 37. What is its 



40 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

use? 38. How many ribs are there? 39. What does a rib look 
like? 40. Which are the true ribs? 41. Which are the false ribs? 

42. What is a floating rib, and which ribs are called floating ? 

43. What is the chest, and what does it contain ? 44.- What is 
another name for it ? 45. What bones form the boundaries of the 
chest? 46. What is the diaphragm, and what cavities does it sep- 
arate ? 47. What bones are there in the upper limb ? 48. How 
many bones are there in the arm ? 49. How many in the forearm? 
50. How many bones are there in the hand ? 51. How is the wrist 
formed ? 52. How many bones are there in each finger ? 53. How 
many bones are there in each lower limb ? 54. Which is the largest 
bone in the body ? 55. Describe the thigh-bone. 56. How many 
bones are there in the leg ? 57. Describe the knee-pan and its use. 
58. How many bones in the foot ? 59. Which are the more movable, 
the toes or the fingers ? 60. Which is the strongest part of the 
foot? 61. In jumping from a height, upon what part of the foot 
should we alight, and why? 62. What are the clangers of high 
heels? 63. What are the effects of too small or badly-formed 
shoes ? 



CIIAPTKIt III. 
THE JOINTS. 

55. Wherever two or more bones meet is a joint. Joints 
are necessary in order that one part of the body may move 
independently of the other. If this arrangement did not exist, 
we should have to move the entire body whenever we wanted 
to move any part of it. If you observe how a man walks when 
his knee-joint, for instance, is stiff and cannot be used, you will 
appreciate how useful joints are. The more joints there are in 
any part of the body the more movable is that part ; notice, for 
instance, how movable the fingers are and how many joints 
there are in the hand. 

56. According to the amount of motion which they permit, 
joints are divided into three classes : 

(1.) Immovable joints, in which there is no visible 
motion. 

(2.) Slightly -movable joints, in which there is slight mo- 
tion only. 

(3.) Movable joints, in which there is free motion. 

57. Immovable Joints. — The best example of this form of 
joint is seen in the skull. The flat bones of the skull are 
fastened together by means of the small projections from their 
edges. Such joints are called sutures. They are very well 
adapted to what is required here, because being closely joined 
they make a strong box of the bones of the skull, and yet they 
are capable of a very little motion, enough to break the force 
of blows upon the head. In this way they serve as additional 
protection to the brain. 

58. Fig. 22 shows the sutures which \ve find on the upper 
surface of the skull. In front, joining the frontal bone with 



42 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

the two parietal bones, there is a suture which extends across 
the skull from one side to the other. It is called the coronal 
suture, from the Latin word corona, which means crown, be- 
cause the front part of the crown of a king is supposed to 
rest upon this line. Behind, where the occipital bone meets 
the two parietal bones is another suture, called the lambdoid, 




Fig. 22.— View of the Skull from Above, Showing the Sutures. 

on account of its resemblance to the Greek letter lambda (A). 
Between these two sutures, the coronal and the lambdoid, is 
another which connects the two parietal bones. It is called the 
sagittal suture, from the Latin word sagitta (an arrow), because 
it was thought to join the coronal suture as an arrow meets the 
string of a bow. 

59. Slightly movable Joints. — In these joints a fair 
amount of motion is allowed, but much less than in the next 
class — the movable joints. ^Ye find examples of slightly movable 
joints between the different vertebrae forming the spinal column. 

60. Movable Joints. — These are the most numerous and 



THE JOINTS. 41} 

the most interesting. In all movable joints the same general 
arrangement exists: the ends of the bones forming the joint 
are covered with gristle or cartilage, a dense, semi-transparent 
substance much softer than bone, acting as a cushion to the 
ends of the bones, so that they are not bruised or injured when 
the joint is moved, or when the ends are brought together 
forcibly, as in jumping. 

If two surfaces rubbing against each other were dry they 
would soon be rubbed off; hence it is necessary to keep a 
joint moist all the time. In machinery this is accomplished 
by oil. In the living body the same thing is done by a yellow- 
ish fluid looking like the w T hite of an egg, which constantly 
covers the ends of these bones. This fluid is given off from 
the inner surface of a sac which lines all movable joints. This 
sac or membrane is called the synovial membrane, and the fluid 
which it gives off is called synovial fluid. The ends of the 
bones forming joints are held in place and connected by strong 
bands of tough tissue, which pass from one bone to the other, 
and are called ligaments. This is shown in Fig. 23, which 
represents a joint cut in two ; the bands on the outside, one 
on each side, passing from the upper to the lower bone, are 
the ligaments. Sometimes these are so extensive as to sur- 
round the entire joint, and thus be a cover to it. This entire 
covering is called the capsular ligament, because it is like a 
capsule ; this is seen in Fig. 24. 

61. Varieties of Movable Joints.— There are four varie- 
ties of movable joints : 

(1.) Gliding-joint — in which one bone slides upon the 
other, as between some of the small bones forming the 
wrist. 

(2.) Hinge-joint — in which one bone swings forward and 
backward from the end of the other, just as a door opens 
and closes upon its hinges. A good example of this form 
of joint is seen in the connection of the arm with the fore- 
arm at the elbow. 



44 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



(3.) Pivot-joint — in which one bone turns upon the othei 
by an arrangement resembling a pivot. This is seen in 
the connection between the skull and the upper end of the 
spinal column. 




Fig. 23. — One of the Movable Joints Sawed 
through Lengthwise, with the Different Parts 
in their Proper Position, thus Showing the 
General Arrangement in Joints. 




Fig. 24.— The Hip-joint, Showing the 
Capsular Ligament Surrounding the Junc- 
tion between ttmHip-bone Above and the 
Thigh-bone Below. 



(4.) Ball-and-socket- joint. This is a form of movable joint 
in which the greatest amount of motion is allowed. One 
bone ends in an enlargement like a ball which fits into a 
socket of the other bone ; hence the term ball-and-socket. 
Examples of this form of joint are seen in the shoulder 
and hip. 
62. Accidents to Joints. — When one of the bones which 
forms the joint is not in its correct position and no longer fits 
on the end of the other, we say that it is out of joint or dis- 
located. This accident is very painful. The bones must be put 
in joint again by the surgeon. Often the capsular ligament 
is torn. The accident is usually the result of falls. Many such 
falls take place in getting off street-cars, especially if the car 



THE JOINTS. 15 

baa not come to a full stop, and the person docs not remember 
to get off facing the horses. 

SYNOPSIS. 

Definition — The place of meeting of two or more bones. 

Uses — To allow greater freedom of motion. 

Varieties — According to amount of motion permitted ■ 

1. Immovable — no visible motion — sutures : 

a. Coronal. 

b. Lambdoid. 

c. Sagittal, etc. 

2. Slightly-movable — slight motion. 

3. Movable — free motion. 

a. Ends covered with cartilage. 

b. Upon this is synovial membrane. 

c. Kept lubricated by synovial fluid. 

d. Bones connected and held in place by ligaments. 

e. Four different forms : 

1. Gliding- joint. 

2. Hinge-joint. 

3. Pivot-joint. 

4. Ball-and-socket-joint. 
Accidents — Dislocations — out of joint. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What is a joint in anatomy? 2. What advantage is there in 
having joints in the body? 3. What classes of joints are there? 
4. Give an example of an immovable joint. 5. What is a suture ? 
6. Name the most important sutures of the skull, and describe each 
one. 7. Give an example of a slightly movable joint. 8. Describe 
the general arrangement in movable joints. 9. How are such joints 
kept moist? 10. What is cartilage ? 11. What are ligaments ? 12. 
How are the ends of bones forming joints held in place ? 13. What 
is a capsular ligament? 14. What forms of movable joints are 
there? 15. What is a gliding joint? 16. Give an example. 17. 
What is a hinge joint ? 18. Give an example. 19. What is a pivot 
joint? 20. Give an example. 21. What is a ball-and-socket joint? 
22. Give an example. 23. What is a dislocation ? 



46 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 




Fig. 25.— The Muscles of the Human Body (the Skin having been Removed). 



CIIAPTEK IV. 
THE MUSCLES AND MOTION. 

63. Thus far we have been studying the framework of the 
body and we found this to consist of about two hundred bones, 
which together we spoke of as the skeleton ; we found also that 
these bones were held together by tough tissues, called cartilage 
and ligaments; we saw that there were a great many joints, so 
that one bone could move upon another. All these formed the 
framework. Now will be considered some of the tissues which 
cover the framework, or till up the spaces between the different 
parts of the skeleton. The first of these to be considered are 
the muscles. We will consider particularly that great mass of 
muscles which covers the skeleton. 

64. Function, or Work of the Muscles. — Muscles give 
us the power of moving the different parts of the skeleton. Our 
skeleton would be of very little value to us if we could not 
move the different bones ; just as the sails of a ship would be 
of little use unless there were ropes and pulleys to hold and 
move them. 

65. Description of Muscls-tissue. — Muscles are the red 
masses which we commonly call flesh. What the butcher 
sells as meat is a mass of muscles from some animal. When 
we eat roast beef for our Sunday dinner we are consuming a 
number of large muscles from the ox. Muscle is of a blood- 
red color. We can separate each muscle into small fibres, 
which are thread-like bodies joined side by side to form a 
fleshy mass which we call muscle. If we look at such a muscle- 



48 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 




-T 



Striped Appearance of the Fibres. (Mag- 
nified several hundred times.) 



fibre under a strong microscope we see a peculiar striped ap- 
pearance, which shows that each muscle-fibre is composed of a 

large number of smaller pieces 
joined together at their surfaces 
(Fig. 26). 

66. Tendons. — Muscles are 
strong, but still they are too 
soft to be attached directly to 
bone ; they would not hold. So 
that strong, tough cords, known 
as tendons, are attached to the 
muscles and connect them with 
the bones. The ten- 
dons are white and 
shining and hence can 

Fig. 26.— A Piece of a Muscle Sepa- easily be distinguished 
rated into its Fibres and Showing the ** ° 

from the muscles. 

They are of great 
strength, and it is very rare for any of them to 
break. The central, thick, fleshy part of a muscle 
is called its belly. In Fig. 27 the belly of the mus- 
cle is marked B, the ends or tendons T. If you 
feel the fleshy mass on the front of the forearm, 
you are feeling muscle. But if you put your finger 
at the wrist, and open and close your hand, you 
will feel hard cords move ; these are the tendons 
of the muscles of your forearm and serve to attach 
the muscles to the bones of your fingers. 

67. Fat. — The different muscles always have a 
little fat mixed with them which cannot be sepa- 
rated. But, besides this smaller quantity, there M c 
is more or less fat in layers between the different TendonsT' 
muscles ; there is also fat covering the muscles and 
between the muscles and the skin. Meat free from fat is said 
to be lean. 



% 



'\-T 



Fig. 27. — A 

Long, Fleshy 

uscle. B , 



THE MUSCLES AND MOTION. 49 

68. Uses of Fat. — A certain amount of fat is necessary, 

and it is useful in the following ways : 

f> ( .). (1.) It keeps the body warm. Fat does not allow the 
heat of the body to pass out readily, and so it protects us from 
the cold. 

70. (2.) It protects tlie body from pressure. Just beneath the 
skin is a layer of fat, thick at some places, and thin at others. 
Where the body is exposed to much pressure the layer of fat is 
thick, preventing us from feeling the weight of the body. In 
the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet, for example, 
there is much fat ; otherwise our hands and feet would ache 
every time we used them considerably. 

71. (3.) Fat is a food. When persons are deprived of food 
they may live for a number of days, for the fat of their bodies 
is changed into nourishment which the blood takes up and 
furnishes to different parts of the body. As examples of this 
we have cases in which persons who were ship wrecked, or who 
stowed themselves away in the hold of a ship so as to steal a 
passage, have survived many days. The tissue which suffers 
most is the fat ; this disappears, and on this account such 
persons rapidly become very thin. 

72. (4.) Another use of fat is to give a fine appearance to the 
body. It fills up the uneven sjDaces that would be left between 
muscles and bones. If it were not for this the entire body 
would be uneven and lumpy. In the baby, where the muscles 
are small and undeveloped and there is considerable fat, the 
outline of the body is nice and round. As the baby gets older 
the muscles become larger, and the amount of fat smaller, 
and the body is no longer so plump and rounded. Where the 
muscles are well exercised much of the fat is absorbed and the 
muscles stand out prominently. But still there is always some 
fat present. 

73. Kinds of Muscle-tissue. — Muscle-tissue is of two 
kinds. One variety, to which most muscles belong, is under 
the control of the loill ; hence such muscles are known as volun- 



50 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

tary muscles, directed by the will. Such muscles remain in a 
state of rest until we desire to use them. All the muscles on 
the outside of the body are of this class. The muscles of our 
arm, for instance, remain at rest during sleep, and at other 
times when we do not care to make use of them. Voluntary 
muscle-tissue appears striped when looked at under the micro- 
scope. 

74. The other class of muscles we call involuntary, that is, 
not directed by the will. These muscles are situated inside the 
body ; as examples may be mentioned the heart, the layer of 
muscle which is found in the walls of the stomach and intes- 
tines, and the muscular fibres in the walls of the arteries 
and by which these blood-vessels are made to contract. We 
cannot control the action of these muscles ; they act without 
our being conscious of it, and it is well that it is so. Take 
the heart, for instance ; day and night it is at work pumping 
the blood into the blood-vessels, to be carried all over the 
body. If we had to watch over this organ, to see that it 
kept on beating, we should always have to stay awake ; and 
if we were careless and fell asleep, and the heart stopped be- 
cause we were not directing it to keep on beating, life w T ould 
soon cease. As another example, let us look at the working of 
the stomach. After food enters this organ the muscular fibres 
in its wall begin to contract and move the food about, so as to 
break it up into finer particles ; this is done without our know- 
ing anything about it, and without our being able to control 
it. Involuntary muscle-tissue presents ??o striped appearance 
under the microscope. 

75. Mixed Muscles. — Some muscles belong partly to one 
class and partly to the other ; for instance, the muscles be- 
tween the ribs, which move the latter in breathing. These 
act all the time ; yet we may not be aware of their action, which 
continues whether we are asleep or awake. Still we can stop 
breathing for a very short time, or we can breathe more rap- 
idly than is natural for a very short time — but only for a short 



PHB MUSCLES AND MOTION". 



51 



time. These muscles are partly voluntary and partly intxrfuw- 
tory. 

76. How Muscles Act.— When a muscle acts we say it 
contract* ; and as a result it causes some part of the body 
to move. If we watch a muscle while it is contracting we find 
it becomes shorter, broader, thicker, and at the same time 






Fig. 28.— A, a Muscle at Rest ; B, the Fig 29.— The Action of the Biceps Muscle 

same Muscle Contracted. It has become of the Front of the Arm. (The dotted fig- 
shorter, broader, and thicker. ure shows the effect of the contraction upon 

the position of the forearm.) 

harder. Place your left hand upon the front of your right 
arm ; now bend your fingers into the palm of your right hand 
and then bend your right forearm upon the arm ; you will feel 
the muscle on the front of the arm become hard and swell up 
— it has become shorter, thicker, and harder. Since the mus- 
cle cannot break loose from its attachment to bones, it must 
bring these bones nearer together when it shortens. Fig. 28 
shows a long, fleshy muscle at rest (A), and the same muscle 



52 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

after contraction (having become shorter, thicker, and broader), 
to the right (B). In Fig. 29 the manner in which the contrac- 
tion of a muscle causes motion is shown. The picture illus- 
trates the biceps muscle on the front of the arm. It is attached 
above to the shoulder-blade (which is the fixed point), and be- 
low to one of the bones of the forearm (the movable attach- 
ment). The dotted figure shows the muscle after it has con- 
tracted—in order to shorten it must bend the forearm, so as 
to bring its two points of attachment nearer together. 

77. Though muscles have the power to contract, they cannot 
do this unless we direct it ; and the order to act comes from 
the brain. If the brain wishes a certain muscle to act, it sends 
it a message, and then the muscle responds. This message goes 
from the brain to the soft, whitish matter in the canal running 
through the centre of the spinal column, known as the spinal 
cord ; from the spinal cord the message is sent directly to the 
muscle by certain white threads, which we call nerves. 

78. This whole arrangement is very much like a telegra^ph 
office : the brain corresponds to the office to which messages 
come and from which messages are sent out, and the nerves 
we may liken to the telegraph wires or messengers which carry 
the despatches. The following example will illustrate this : 
Suppose you see an orange on the table before you. The eye 
sends a message to the brain, by means of the nerve of the eye, 
that the orange is there. You are heated and thirsty, and 
would like to eat the orange. The brain then sends out a mes- 
sage to the muscles that move your fingers and to those that 
move your arm that they are to seize the orange, and they 
obey. The message from the brain was carried down through 
the nerve-tissue in the backbone, the spinal cord, then through 
the nerves of the arm to their smallest branches, which pass to 
the muscles. 

79. Although the muscles contract, and thereby cause the 
movement of the arm, forearm, and fingers, they are only 
the servants of the brain and nerves ; without an order from 



THE MUSCLES AND MOTION. &} 

the brain through the Dervea they could nol move. This is 
proven by the fad thai when, from an injury, the nerves of the 
forearm are cut across, the muscles of the forearm and hand 

become lame, and we say they arc paralyzed. If we examine 

them we may find no change, but they can no longer receive 
orders to act from the brain, and on this account are motion- 

m>. Ordinary Muscular Movements are very Com- 
plex. — It is so easy for us to make use of our muscles that 
we are apt to believe every act which they perform very sim- 
ple, but this is not the case. Even the very simplest acts in- 
volve the use of a great many different muscles. When we 
walk, for instance, we do not even give it a thought, yet very 
many different muscles are acting, each one with great skill 
and nicety. It is on this account that man cannot construct 
machinery that will perform many of the things done by his 
hands. Xo machine could be constructed, for instance, that 
could write, or draw, or paint to imitate the work done by hand. 
Even when we stand there are a number of muscles at work 
balancing the body. After standing a long time, owing to the 
fact that these muscles become worn out, we feel tired. 

81. Groups of Muscles. — Usually we find that muscles 
occur in sets, or groups, and that one set accomplishes just the 
opposite action from the other. Thus the muscles on the front 
of the forearm serve to close the fingers and hand, while those 
on the back of the forearm serve to open them. The large 
muscle on the back of the arm, called the triceps, straightens 
out the forearm, while the thick muscle in front of the arm, 
called the biceps (Fig. 30), bends the forearm upon the arm. 

82. All the different expressions of the face are produced by 
the action of the small muscles of the face. When they draw 
up the corners of the mouth they give rise to a look of pleasure 
and smiling ; if they draw down the corners of the mouth they 
produce an expression of sadness and displeasure. They may 
wrinkle the forehead horizontally and make the face look in 



54 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 




Fig. 30.— The Muscles of the Front of the 
Chest, Arm, and Forearm. The fan-like 
muscle above and to the left is the " pec- 
toralis ; "' in the centre of the arm is seen 
the " biceps." 



doubt, or wrinkle it vertically, 
producing a frown. There are 
many other varieties of expres- 
sion. The expression of the 
face soon becomes that which 
the person himself habitually 
uses. If you look sullen and 
angry all the time the face will 
soon have this expression, be- 
cause the muscles become so ac- 
customed to acting in this way 
that they cannot do otherwise. 
In the same way you may have 
a constant silly expression, if 
you act the part of a fool every 
time you are with your com- 
panions. Some children are in 
the habit of twisting their eyes 
so that they look cross-eyed. 
This they often do to make their 
friends laugh. They should re- 
member that from constantly do- 
ing this the eyes may be injured. 
83. Number of Muscles. 
— There are about three hundred 
muscles on each side of the body, 
making about six hundred in all. 
Nearly all the muscles occur 
in pairs, that is, are the same 
on one side as on the other. 
A few muscles which exist in 
the middle line of the body 
are single. 

84. Shape of Muscles.--- 
Muscles vary greatly in shajje. 



THE MUSCLES AND MOTION. 



r>r> 



The mosi frequent form is thai of a long, fleshy bundle with a 
tendon at either end (ov fastening it to bone. Sometimes they 
are flattened and placed in layers, as is the ease in the muscles 
of the wall of the abdomen. Some muscles consi^of flattened 
bundles which come together toward a single point like a fan ; 
such is the muscle of the temple — the temporal muscle. Other 
muscles are square-shaped, and still others form a circular 
ring ; so that there is great variety in the shapes of muscles. 

85. Size of Muscles. — Here, too, there are the greatest 
differences. Some of the muscles in the interior of the ear are 
only a fraction of an inch in length. Some of those of the eye 
are about an inch in length, while the longest muscle is one 
which extends from the hip to below the knee, and is over two 
feet in length. Between these two extremes there are many 
different sizes. 

86. A Few Important Mus- 
cles. — It is not necessary for you 
to remember the names of many of 
the muscles, but there are a few 
which are worth remembering, be- 
cause they are important, and be- 
cause we often see them mentioned 
in books and newspapers. They are 
the following : 

87. TJie Biceps is the large fleshy 
muscle on the front of the arm, which 
bends the forearm upon the arm 
(Figs. 30 and 31). It can be felt 
upon making this motion. 

88. The Triceps is the muscle of 
considerable size which can be felt 
upon the back of the arm. It serves 
to straighten out the forearm after the biceps has bent it. 

89. The Chest-muscle, or Pectoralis (Fig. 30), forms the prom- 
inence at the upper part of the chest on each side. It is trian- 




FlG. 



31.— The Biceps and Tri« 
ceps Muscles. 



56 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, A1STD HYGIENE. 




gular in shape, like a fan. It draws the arm inward across the 
chest. 

90. TJie Diaphragm is the sheet of muscle which separates 
the cavity o£> the chest from that of the abdomen. It is of 
great importance, and is one of the principal muscles concerned 
in breathing. It is an involuntary muscle. 

91. The Tendon of Achilles, — This is 
the strong, thick cord which you can feel at 
the back and lower part of the leg, just above 
the heel. It is the end of a very large and 
powerful muscle which raises the heel when 
we w r alk. It has received its name from the 
following story: Achilles was a Grecian hero. 
There w T as supposed to be a river, the Styx, of 
which it was said that whoever bathed in its 
waters could not be wounded. The mother of 
Achilles wishing to preserve her son from all 
future danger, dipped him into this river Styx, 
holding him by the heel. All parts of his body 
were w 7 et except the heel by which he was held, 
and at this place he is said to have received his 
death-w T ound. 

92. The Care of Muscles- — The muscles 
form such a large part of the body that they 
soon show changes whenever our health is poor. 
During sickness, they w r aste aw 7 ay and become 
smaller. Even after being confined to bed for a 
few days we are surprised to find how weak 
we feel on getting up, and how difficult it is 
to stand. During this short period our mus- 
cles have become weaker because we could not 

exercise them. So in order to get strong muscles they must 
be much exercised. 

93. Exercise. — Look at the arm of a blacksmith and see 
how well-developed his muscles are. This is because" he is 




Fig. 3-2.— The Mus- 
cles of the Back of 
the Leg, showing Be- 
low (* *) the Tendon 
of Achilles. 



THE MUSCLES ,\M> MOTION. 57 

constantly exercising them. In the same way the legs of a 
man who walks or runs a great deal will be well developed, 
ami become prominent and hard. It is a line sight to 
man who has large muscles which stand out and make him look 
strong and manly. Such a man is not so apt to get sick as 
another ; he feels stronger and may be more useful in the 
world because of his strength. 

94 All children should exercise regularly and sufficiently. It 
is not enough to walk slowly to school each day ; if this is all 
the exercise a person takes his muscles will become small and 
weak, and he will become delicate. Children should have at 
least two or three hours exercise each day. The best exercise is 
that which is taken in the open air. 

95. Playing with one's companions is the best kind of 
exercise, because it rests the mind and exercises the body 
at the same time. Fast walking, moderate running, row- 
ing, swimming, skating, bicycle - riding, and playing base- 
ball, foot-ball, tennis, and croquet are all good forms of exer- 
cise. 

96. "We must remember to quit exercise when we begin to feel 
tired, for this is a sign that we have exercised enough and need 
rest. If exercise be continued too long it is harmful instead of 
beneficial. Many girls do themselves great harm by excessive 
exercise in jumping a rope, by trying to outdo their com- 
panions iu the number of times they can jump without stop- 
ping. They often become greatly exhausted, and death has 
sometimes resulted. 

97. We should also avoid all violent exercise, for this does 
more harm than good. When boys try to lift heavy weights 
which would be a task even for men, or do too difficult feats in 
the gymnasium, producing too great a strain upon the muscles, 
it only harms them instead of causing them to increase in 
strength. 

98. Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco on Muscles. — Of 
all enemies to the development of muscle there are none greater 



58 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

than alcohol and tobacco. This is so well known that all per- 
sons who train in order to accomplish physical feats requiring 
unusual strength and the best of health, give up all use of 
tobacco and either use very little alcoholic drink or none at all. 
What alcohol is will be explained in another chapter. It will 
be sufficient to say here that all those drinks which, taken in 
any quantity, cause men to become intoxicated, contain alcohol 
and are called alcoholic drinks. 

99. The word train also requires explanation. It means to 
live in the most healthy way ; to go to bed early and rise 
early ; to eat the most digestible and strength-giving food ; 
to take plenty of out-of-door exercise ; to avoid all tobacco ; 
and to abstain entirely from drink containing alcohol. All 
this is done to develop the muscles, so that one may be put 
in a fine and healthy condition, and become as strong as 
possible. 

100. Everyone has probably heard of the great boat-races 
which take place every year between Columbia and Harvard 
Colleges, and between Harvard and Yale Colleges. There is 
great rivalry between the colleges, and of course each likes to 
win the race. Each of these crews trains throughout the winter 
and spring until the day of the race, so as to become strong 
and increase the chances of winning. Every member leads a 
most regular life, and smoking and alcoholic drinks are absolute- 
ly forbidden. 

101. Alcohol is the enemy of muscle because it changes it into 
fat. When a muscle contains much fat it becomes weak and 
useless. Look at the drunkard and see how weak and flabby 
his muscles are. He may look big, but it is due to fat and not 
to muscle, and though he looks large he is bloated and puffed 
up ; he really is weak and tires easily. Nor is this all. The 
heart also is formed of muscle-tissue, and becomes changed to 
fat in the drunkard, when it cannot beat so strongly as it 
should. It becomes weak, and the blood is no longer pumped 
into the arteries as it should be, and the entire body suffers. 



THE MUSCLES AND Motion. fiO 

Sometimes there is so much fai mixed with the muscle of the 
heart that its wall becomes thin, and il may even burst; then 
instant death ensues. 



SYNOPSIS. 

Function of Muscle— Power of moving parts of skeleton. 
Description : 

1. Red masses commonly called flesh. 

2. Divisible into fibres. 

3. Have the power of contracting or shortening. 

4. Three kinds are : 

<t. Voluntary — Under control of the will — on outside of 
body. 

1. Appear striped under the microscope. 

2. End in tendons for attachment to bones. 

3. In contracting, become shorter, thicker, broader, 
and harder. 

b. Involuntary— not under control of the will — heart, 
walls of stomach and arteries, etc. 

1. Are not striped as seen under microscope. 

2. No tendons. 

c. Mixed— Consisting partly of voluntary, partly of in- 
voluntary fibres, such as muscles between the ribs. 

5. More or less fat between the fibres, between the different 
muscles, and covering them. 

6. Muscles usually occur in groups. 
Uses of Fat : 

1. To keep the body warm. 

2. To protect the body from pressure. 

3. To serve as a food. 

4. To improve the appearance of the body. 
The Way in which Muscles act : 

1. Become shorter. 

2. Become broader. 

3. Become thicker. 

4. Become harder. 

5. Bring together the parts to which attached. 



60 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

6. Dependent upon the influence of the brain, spinal cord, 
and nerves. 

7. Ordinary muscular movements very complex. 
Number of Muscles — About three hundred on each side. 

Shape of Muscles — Varies greatly : Most frequently, long fleshy 
bundle ; flat, fan -shaped, square -shaped, circular, etc. 

Size of Muscles — Varies greatly ; smallest, a fraction of an inch 
(found in ear) ; largest, over two feet in length (extends from hip- 
bone to leg). 

A Few Important Muscles : 

1. Biceps — Front of arm — bends forearm upon arm. 

2. Triceps — Back of arm — straightens arm. 

3. Pectoralis — Muscle of chest — draws arm across chest. 

4. Diaphragm — Involuntary muscle separating abdomen from 
chest — muscle of breathing. 

5. Tendon of Achilles — Just above heel — lower end of a large 
muscle of leg — has received its name from story concerning 
Achilles. 

Care of Muscles : 

1. They suffer when general health is poor. 

2. They need regular and sufficient exercise. 

3. Children should have at least two or three hours' exercise 
every day, in the open air. 

4. Good forms of exercise — Kapid walking, moderate running, 
rowing, swimming, skating, bicycle-riding, horseback-riding, 
base-ball, foot-ball, tennis, croquet. 

5. Stop exercise when beginning to feel tired. 

6. Avoid violent exercise. 

7. Effects of alcohol and tobacco on muscles : 

a. Enemies to the development of muscles. 

b. Alcohol changes muscle into fat — becomes weak and 
flabby. 

c. Alcohol changes heart into fat — becomes w r eak and 
does work poorly. 



THE MUSCLES AND MOTION. 61 



QUESTIONS. 

1. What use do we make of muscles? 2. What does muscle-tis- 
sue look Like ? 3. What is it commonly called ? 4. What are mus- 
cle-fibres? 5. What are tendons? 6. Of what use are tendons? 
7. What can you say about the appearance and the strength of ten- 
dons ? 8. How does fat occur with muscle ? 9. What are the uses 
of fat in the body ? 10. What proof is there that fat is used as 
nourishment by the blood? 11. Is there a larger proportion of fat 
in the baby or in the grown person ? 12. What three kinds of mus- 
cle are there ? 13. What is a voluntary muscle ? 14. Give an ex- 
ample? 15. What is an involuntary muscle? 16. Give an ex- 
ample ? 17. Why is it necessary that some muscles shall be invol- 
uutary ? 18. Give an example of the working of an involuntary 
muscle. 19. Do muscles ever belong to both classes ? 20. Give 
an example. 21. What do we mean when we say a muscle con- 
tracts ? 22. How does the muscle change when it acts? 23. Can 
the muscles contract of their own accord ? 21. What causes the 
muscle to act ? 25. What part does the brain take in the contrac- 
tion of muscles ? 26. What part do the nerves take in this ? 27. 
How can you prove that muscle itself cannot act without the influ- 
ence of the nerves ? 28. What two sets of muscles do we usually 
find together, and how does one set act toward the other? 29. Give 
an example of two muscles which have exactly opposite actions ? 
30. How are the different expressions of sorrow, joy, and the like 
produced in the face ? 31. What may result from continually hav- 
ing an ugly or a foolish expression in the face ? 32. How many 
muscles are there in the human body ? 33. Do muscles usually oc- 
cur singly, or are they usually the same on one side of the body as 
on the other? 31. Mention some of the shapes of muscles. 35. 
How do muscles vary in size ? 36. Where is the Bicq?s muscle ? 
37. Describe the Triceps muscle. 38. Describe the Diaphragm. 
39. Describe the chest-muscle, and give its other name. 40. W r here 
is the Tendon of Achilles ? 41. From what circumstance did it re- 
ceive its name ? 42. How does the condition of our health affect 
the state of our muscles ? 43. What happens when we do not use 
our muscles? 44. What effect has exercise upon our muscles? 45. 
How much exercise should children have every day ? 46. Where 



62 ANATOMY. PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

is the best place to take this exercise, in the open air or in-doors ? 
47. What is the best kind of exercise for children ? 48. Mention 
some of the good forms of exercise ? 49. What effect has exercise 
when it is continued too long ? 50. What effect has exercise which 
is too violent and heavy ? 51. What effects have alcohol and to- 
bacco upon the development of muscle ? 52. What do you mean 
by alcoholic drinks? 53. What is meant by training? 54. What 
is the effect of training? 55. Why is alcohol injurious to muscle? 
56. What effect has alcohol upon the heart-muscle ? 






CHAPTER V. 
FOOD AND DRINK. 

102. As we shall see later, the different tissues of our bodies 
are being used up constantly. They are then replaced by ma- 
terials taken from the blood. The blood receives the nutritious 
matters from our food and drink. Of course, our food has to 
be changed very much before the blood can absorb it to build 
up the different parts of the body. When we drink milk we 
say it is nourishing, and no doubt it is ; but the milk must be- 
come changed in the stomach and intestines before it can enter 
the blood and circulate through the body to replace used-up 
tissues. 

103. Food and Drink are Essential to Life.— Without 
food and drink we could not live ; they are necessary for life 
and growth. We often hear of people fasting for a long time. 
It has happened that persons have lived for a few weeks with- 
out any food, but never without drink. If the body be deprived 
of both food and drink, death takes place, usually after several 
days. It is easy to see why this must be so. Even when we 
are as quiet as possible, the different tissues of our body are con- 
stantly changing, and are constantly being changed into material 
which is waste and must be cast off. We must breathe, and our 
heart must act constantly, and both of these are muscular ac- 
tions and consume nutrition furnished by the blood. If the 
blood does not get a sufficient supply of this from our food and 
drink, it must take it from the tissues, which would soon waste, 
and the person would die from weakness, because both blood and 
solid tissues would become changed so much that they would 
be unable to perform their functions. 



64 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

104. Difference in the Food of Plants and of Animals. 

— The food of plants is quite different from that of animals, 
being much more simple. Plants live upon air, the gases con- 
tained in the air, the moisture from the ground, and certain salts 
which are in the ground. These things are, of course, en- 
tirely too simple to support animals. Animals require some- 
thing more. If you should try the experiment of feeding your 
pet clog upon nothing but water, air, and salts, you would find 
he would become very thin and weak, and would soon die from 
lack of food. 

105. Difference in the Food of Different Animals. — 
Some animals live almost entirely upon flesh, and are therefore 
called carnivorous — a long word, meaning that they devour 
flesh. The cat, the dog, the lion, and the tiger are examples 
of this class. 

106. Other animals exist upon vegetables, grass, grain, and 
the like, and are therefore called herbivorous — that is, herb-de- 
vouring. Of this class the cow, horse, and rabbit are examples. 

107. Man belongs to neither of these two classes. He com- 
bines the two, requiring both fleshy and vegetable food. With these 
he must also have water and a certain amount of mineral salts. 

108. Fleshy Food. — By fleshy food is meant meat, whether 
from the ox, sheep, or other animal of this class, or from 
fishes. 

109. Vegetable Food. — This is the name given to the 
food which plants produce. It contains starch, sugar, and other 
matters. One variety of this kind of food contains a large 
amount of starch, and is therefore called starchy, or farinaceous 
food. Examples of this kind are wheat, which furnishes the 
flour from which bread is made, corn, barley, rice, oats, and the 
like. Hay also belongs to this class. Man could not, of course, 
eat hay, since his stomach is not arranged so that he could di- 
gest it ; but the ox eats hay, which is converted in his body 
into nutritious materials from which his flesh is formed, and 
the latter is then eaten by man. 



FOOD AND DRINK. 66 

110. Starch. — It is important in understand thoroughly 

what Starchy food is. You may Lave seen starch used for stif- 
fening linen. When used in this way, it is first mixed with 
water and then placed on the fire, which causes it to swell up 
and become changed into a paste. Raw starch is not suitable 
for food for man ; it must first be made digestible by boiling. 
All starchy food must first be boiled before it can be used as 
food. The cow and ox can eat hay and oats and digest them ; 
but man would not think of taking oatmeal raw, but onlv after 




Fig. 33.— Starch Granules (from Potato) as Seen under the Microscope. 

it had been boiled. The same applies to rice, farina, barley, and 
all other farinaceous food. There is no starch in fleshy food and 
none in animals ; it occurs only in plants. 

111. Starch is a white powder which has a strange, dry feel- 
ing. When looked at under the microscope each grain of the 
powder has a peculiar form and is marked by rings or lines 
(Fig. 33). 

11*2. Another form of vegetable food has a large quantity of 
sugar in it ; so that we are constantly taking in sugar with our 
food to form nourishment. 



66 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

113. Then it is also necessary that we should eat green vege- 
tables, as peas, spinach, string beans, salad, and the like. When 
deprived of these for any length of time, the blood becomes poor, 
and the body suffers. 

114. Fat and Fatty Food. — Fat or fatty food forms an 
essential part of our food. This is why we eat butter with our 
bread. The fat which we take in with our food may be vege- 
table, as for instance, certain nuts, or of tener animal food in the 
form of butter from cows' milk and the fat around meat. In 
the body, starchy and sugary food is changed into fat, and 
this is why we say that potatoes, bread, and the like are 
fattening. 

115. Water. — Water is even more necessary to life than is 
food. A person could live longer without food than without 
drink. The great drink is, of course, ivaler. Three -fourths 
of the weight of the human body is water ; consequently water 
is an absolutely essential addition to our food. 

116. Tea and Coffee. — Much of the liquid which we drink 
is a decoction of tea and coffee. Grown people, while not usually 
harmed by either of these, sometimes make themselves nervous 
by drinking too much or too strong ; but both are injurious to 
children, for whom milk or water are the best drinks. Chocolate 
contains considerable nutritious fatty matter. Hence chocolate 
is more of a food, while tea and coffee are only stimulants — that 
is, they excite the system for the time only. Children do not 
need stimulants of any kind. 

117. Man must Combine all Forms of Food with 
Water. — Man is so constituted that he cannot exist upon any 
one form of food alone. Meat is very nourishing, but a man 
could not exist on meat alone ; he would soon become thin and 
weak. He must have meat, fatty food, vegetable food, and 
water, all combined. 

Some of the Simplest Forms of Food. — We will now 
consider some of the different forms of food. 

118. Meat and Fish. — There are a great many different 



POOD AM, DRINK. 67 

kinds of meat. Beef is used more than any of the othera 
There is always some fat mixed with the meat, even when we 
cannot trim off any more. Under this head also come chicken, 

turkey, and other fowl. Fish is a very useful form of fleshy 
food, and is usually quite easily digested. 

119. Bread. — Bread is made from flour. In America, this is 
usually wheat ground up fine. The baker takes the flour and 
adds water and a little salt, and with these he makes the 
dough. He also adds yeast, and will tell you he does this to 
make it rise, so that it will be light and easy to digest. What 
does the yeast do ? When it is added to the dough it changes 
some of the starch so that a gas is given off. This gas escapes 
in bubbles, but cannot get through the dough. When it tries 
to work its way out, it puffs out the dough and makes it 
light and porous. Then this dough is put into the oven and 
baked, a hard crust forming on the outside. Bread is often 
called the staff of life on account of its importance. 

120. Milk- — Most of the milk used by man is obtained 
from the cow ; but in some countries milk ......„, 

is obtained from the goat and from the ass. ^0^f^ 



food, and at the same time one of the most 2-*-.^ ? 'i ; ~J '$$M® 



Milk is one of the most nutritious articles of : df^Q®??£&\Ql 



<:'0*. 



».°:'5^"c 



easily digested. Milk contains substances ^{rii^^gS^SS 1 ./ 
which are like all the different kinds of food ^M0^k^ 
which man requires. It contains materials pig. 34.— a Drop at 

m.i j» t • n i _£• i Tii Milk Seen under the Mi- 

te those found in flesh, tat, and others croscope, showing the 

which resemble those found in vegetable food, Fat "* lobules ( Cream >- 
and it contains a large amount of water. Thus it has in it 
everything that we require, so that we could live on milk with- 
out any other food. The baby thrives on milk alone for a long 
time, but after awhile man longs for more variety in his 
food. 

The fatty part of the milk, the cream, floats on top after the 
milk has stood for a time, when it can then be taken off. 

121. Butter is nothing but this cream pressed together, 



68 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

Cream consists of fat-globules (Fig. 34). When milk is churned, 
these fat-globules stick together, and in this way form a mass 
called butter. 

122. Milk from which the cream has been taken is called 
skimmed milk, it then has a bluish tint, and is less nour- 
ishing. 

123. If we add a little piece of the stomach of the calf to the 
milk, it causes it to thicken or curd. This curd properly treated 
and pressed together forms cheese. 

124. Eggs are obtained from the hen, and from other birds 
of this kind. They are very nutritious and easily digested. 
The shell of the egg is lime. The contents of the egg consist 
of two parts, the white and the yellow. In the yellow or yolk 
of the egg is much fatty matter. Both portions of the egg- 
correspond to fleshy food. 

125. Variety in Food. — We could not eat the same kind 
of food every day, for we should soon get tired of it ; it is neces- 
sary to have different kinds of food. Certain foods, however, 
as milk, butter, bread, beef, seem never to tire us. 

126. Proper Food.— If we wish to remain healthy we must 
not eat improper food. Girls who eat too much candy, or too 
many pickles, usually have very little appetite for any proper 
food, and soon become pale and delicate. And boys who eat 
green apples in summer, or unripe fruit of any kind, are sure to 
repent it. They are apt to become sick, and to have great pain 
in the stomach. 

127. Methods of Cooking. — Sometimes we eat our food 
raw, as, for instance, fruit ; but usually we cook it, because it 
becomes more digestible and tastes better. In cooking, we 
may make use of a great many different plans. If it is meat, 
we may put it into water and boil it, or if we let it get a little 
thicker, we stew it. We may put it into the pan with some fat 
and fry it. By holding it directly to the fire w T e broil, or roast 
it. Finally, by putting it into the oven, we bake it. Of all 
these different methods, boiling, stewing, and broiling, are most 



FOOD AND DRINK. 



69 



to be recommended, because they make the food the easiest to 

digest. 

128. You must remember also to take food at regular times 
in the day. Usually three meals a day are enough. Never <'<il 
in a hurry, but chew your food well. Never eat so much at one 
meal that you feel heavy, full, and uncomfortable. 

1*21). Our Drinking-water. — Water is the great drink, and 
it is very necessary that it should be pure. Clear water is not 




Fig. 85. — A Section of a Dwelling, and its Accompaniments, as is often Found in the 
Country. The shading extending from the stable to the layer of rock at the bottom of the 
well, shows the course of the poisonous material from the stable, with its manure-heap and 
pig-pen, to the well. 

always pure. Water may be very impure and still be very clear 
and transparent. And again, water may look a little cloudy, 
and yet be perfectly innocent and healthy. What makes some 
water unhealthy and injurious is poison dissolved from the soil. 
In cities where the water is brought from a distance in pipes, 
this poison is not apt to occur ; but in the country, where the 
water from wells is used, it is often present. In the country, 
very often no other water can be obtained except that from the 
well, and for the sake of convenience, the well is built near the 
house and the stable, where it is very apt to be poisoned. Fig. 



70 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

35 illustrates very nicely the manner in which the well-water 
may become poisoned. It is a good example of what occurs 
constantly in many places in the country where well-water is 
used without proper precautions having been taken to prevent 
poisoning. 

130. An examination of the picture on p. 69 shows the follow- 
ing : To the right is the dwelling-house ; to the left is the stable 
with its manure-heap and pig-pen ; between these two is the 
well. The surface of the ground is fairly level, and is sandy, 
and beneath this is gravel. The rain soaks into the porous 
ground, and in doing so dissolves poisonous matters from the 
manure-heap and the pig-pen, and after it has soaked into 
the ground it remains there, since there is a layer of rock be- 
low, which will not allow the water to pass. This poisoned 
water collects here, and then gradually enters the lower part of 
the well. When water is. drawn from the well it will be easily 
understood that it is partly the same water which has passed 
over and through the manure-heap and the dirt of the pig-pen 
before passing into the ground. The shading extending, on 
the figure, from the stable to the bottom of the well, shows the 
course which this poisoned water takes. Such water causes 
typhoid fever and other diseases. 

It has often happened that a great many persons become sick 
in a village at the same time. When a great many persons be- 
come sick at the same time, and have the same disease, an 
epidemic is said to exist. Many epidemics have been found to 
have been produced by the drinking of poisoned well-water. 

131. The water of a pure river should be preferred to that of 
a well. But sometimes we have no choice and must drink well- 
water. In this case we should see that the well is thirty feet 
or more from any inhabited building, and that no refuse or 
slops of any kind are allowed to soak into the ground. Such 
refuse should be kept in water-tight barrels and carted off 
regularly. If we are in doubt about whether the water is good 
or not, we may boil it thoroughly ; this destroys the poison, and 






FOOD AN!) DRINK. 71 

then we are Bafe in drinking it. Varieties of fillers are made, 
which are of value in freeing water from dangerous impurities; 
not all filters, however, accomplish this purpose. 

132. Water which lias stood in leaden pipes all night dis- 
solves a little of the lead ; hence when we use the water in the 
morning, we should allow it to run a few minutes before using 
any. 

SYNOPSIS. 

Uses of Food and Drink : 

1. To support Life. 

2. To allow growth. 

Differences in Food of Plants and of Animals : 

a. Food of Plants : 

1. Air. 

2. Gases in the air. 

3. Moisture from the ground. 

4. Salts from the ground. 

b. Food of Animals : 

1. Fleshy food (meat and fish). 

2. Fatty food. 

3. Starchy and sugary food, including green vegetables. 

4. Water (forms three-fourths weight of body). 
Differences in Food of Different Animals : 

a. Carnivorous — Flesh-eating. 

b. Herbivorous — Eating vegetables, grass, grain, etc. 

c. Man — Mixed food. 
Drink : 

Water. 

Tea and coffee — Unnecessary for children — often harmful 
Necessity for Combining all Forms of Food with Water. 
Some of the Simplest Forms of Food : 

Meat and Fish — Beef most common. 

Bread — Should be light and porous. 

Milk — Most nutritious — contains : 
d. Cream, making butter. 
b. A material forming cheese. 

Eggs — Very nutritious. 



72 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

Methods of Cooking : 

1. Boiled — Placed in water and heated. 

2. Stewed— Somewhat thicker than boiled. 

3. Broiled / 

, _, .,- r — Exposed directiv to lire. 

4. Boasted ) l 

5. Baked — Placed in oven. 

6. Fried — Placed in pan with fat. 

Boiling, stewing, and broiling are most nutritious. 
Cautions Eegarding Food : 

1. Variety. 

2. No improper food, such as much candy, unripe apples, 
etc. 

3. Begularity in meals. 

4. Plenty of time for meals. 

5. No overloading. 
Drinking-water : 

Should be pure. 
Clear water may not be pure. 
Healthy water may be a little cloudy. 
Danger of water from certain wells — 

Occurring through contamination from soil. 
Avoided by removal of well to distance of thirty feet or 
more from habitations, and removal of refuse without allow- 
ing it to poison the soil. 
Water from pure river preferable. 
Danger of poisoning from leaden pipes. 

Purification of suspected water by boiling or by passage 
through porcelain or other niters. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Why must we take food and drink ? 2. What must happen to 
the food before it can be changed into our tissues ? 3. Describe the 
food upon which plants live. 4. Do all animals have the same kind 
of food? 5. What difference is there between the kind of food 
which the cow takes and that which the dog eats ? 6. What is 
meant by a carnivorous animal ? 7. What is meant by a herbivorous 
animal? 8. To which class does man belong? 9. What is meant by 
fleshy food? 10. What is meant by vegetable food? 11. What is 



Fool) WD DRINK. 73 

farinaceous food ? 12. What is starch? J.'). Down find starch in 
animals? 14. Whyisil necessary to eat green vegetables ? 15. Do 

we need fat in our food? 16. Can man exist on any one form of food 
alone? 17. Why do we naturally eat butter with our bread? 18. 
How is bread prepared ? 19. Why is yeast added? 20. Could we 
exist on milk alone? 21. Why? 22. What part of the milk does 
the cream represent? 23. What is butter? 24. What is cheese? 
25. What can you say about eggs as food ? 26. Could we eat the 
same kind of food every day ? 27. W T hat follows when we eat im- 
proper food ? 28. Why is most of our food cooked ? 29. Name 
some of the different plans of cooking food. 30. What makes our 
drinking-water unhealthy? 31. Explain how well-water is often 
poisoned. 32. How can you prevent poisoning of well-water ? 



CHAPTEE VI. 
DIGESTION. 

133. The word digestion means the changing of the food by 
the organs in the abdomen, so as to liquefy it in order that the 
blood can take it up and make tissues out of it. Digestion 
commences in the mouth and ends in the large intestine. If 
we commence from above, the following parts are met with : 
mouth, throat, gullet, stomach, small intestine, pancreas, liver, 
large intestine. All of these, except the pancreas and the 
liver, are hollow organs through which the food passes. All 
of these hollow organs taken together form the alimentary 
canal. Each of the organs of digestion will now be con- 
sidered. 

THE MOUTH. 

This- is the commencement of the alimentary canal (Figs. 36 
and 67) and is the cavity in which the food is chewed and 
mixed with saliva. 

134. The Teeth. — The chewing is done by means of the 
teeth. These are supported by the jaws and occur in two rows, 
an upper and a lower. We do not have the same teeth when 
we are grown that we had when we were very small ; all the 
the teeth of young children fall out ; they are only temporary, 
and hence are called temporary or milk teeth. There are ten of 
these in each jaw, making twenty altogether. 

135. In the sixth year, or before, the temporary teeth begin 
to fall out, and after the sixth year, others commence to grow 






DIGESTION. 



75 



to take their places. These are stronger than those which grow 
first, and there are more of them. They are called permanent 




Fig. 36.— Outline Sketch of the Organs of Digestion. 



teeth ; and there are sixteen in each jaw. After the sixth year, 
the other permanent teeth gradually replace the temporary ones, 



76 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



which fall out. The last tooth to appear is that placed farthest 
back, called the wisdom-tooth; this comes about the twenty- 
first year. 

136. Each tooth can be divided into the part which projects 




Fig. 37. — The Upper and Lower Jaws with the Permanent Teeth. 



into the mouth, above the gums, called the crown, the part which 
sinks into the jaw, the fang or root, and the line between these 
two, called the neck. Teeth are composed of a very 
hard material, consisting very largely of lime, called 
dentine. They are hollow in the centre (Fig. 38) and 
this central space is filled up with a soft material 
called the pidp. On the surface of the crown is a 
covering of very hard material, formed principally 
of lime, called enamel. Each tooth is supplied with 
a small nerve which enters it through an opening 
in the end of the root. It is the exposure of 
this nerve through the formation of cavities in 
the teeth which most often gives rise to toothache. 
137. Upon examining the teeth, we find they differ greatly 
in size and shape. They are similar on the two sides of the 
mouth and are the same in the upper as in the lower jaw. In 




Fig. 38. — 
Section of One 
of the Molar 
Teeth. 



DIGESTION. 



77 



Wig. .°)7 we see the teeth in position ; in Fig. 39 they are sep- 
arated, those on the right of the figure corresponding to 
the middle line, while those on the left are the back teeth. 
Commencing in the centre and proceeding toward each side 
(from right to left in Fig. 39) there are first two sharp-pointed 
teeth, having chisel-like edges, called the incisor teeth. Their 
sharp edges are intended to cut the food and to bite it into 
pieces. Next to these is a long, pointed tooth, called the 



Fang or Root. 





Fig. 39. — The Permanent Teeth. Above are those of the upper jaw : below, those of the 
lower jaw. The teeth of one side of the jaw only are represented. The two teeth to the 
right are incisors. The long tooth next to these is the canine tooth. The following two 
are bicuspids. The last three (to the left) are molars. 



canine, also known as the eye-tooth. In the dog and cat, and 
animals of this type, this tooth is of great length and sharpness, 
and is used for tearing meat. Next to the canine are two 
broader teeth having two sharp points each, known as the bi- 
cuspid teeth. Still further back there are three large, broad 
teeth, the surface of whose crowns is very uneven, but they are 
very strong ; they are the molars and serve to grind up the 
food into small particles. 

138. The teeth are intended to chew the food so that it is in 
small enough particles to be received and digested by the 



78 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

stomach. Hasty eating results in the swallowing of food which 
has not been chewed sufficiently, thus causing indigestion, pain 
in the stomach, and, if continued, dyspepsia (which means dif- 
ficult digestion). 

139. Care of the Teeth. — Teeth are natural ornaments when 
nice and healthy ; but very disfiguring when dirty or de- 
cayed. Teeth should be brushed every morning upon rising, 
and every night before retiring ; they should be kept clean at 
all times. If particles of food lodge between the teeth, they 
should be removed with toothpicks of wood or quill ; never 
with pins, needles, or metallic points. Teeth are apt x to decay 
and cavities to form, if the general health becomes poor, or if 
much improper food be taken. By improper food is meant, a 
great many pickles, much candy and cake, and food which is 
difficult to digest or too acid. Teeth should not be used to 
crack nuts with, nor for anything but chewing. When cavities 
have formed in the teeth, the dentist fills them with gold or 
silver foil to prevent them from decaying more. 

140. The vulgar habit of chewing tobacco discolors the 
teeth, makes the breath offensive, and injures digestion. 



THE SALIVARY GLANDS. 

141. We give the name glands to certain bodies, usually 
small and round, in which fluid is formed to be used in various 
ways. For instance, around the mouth there are many such 
glands, which form the saliva; that is, the fluid which con- 
stantly keeps the mouth wet, and moistens our food} hence 
these glands around the mouth are called the salivary glands. 
There are a great many of them, but most of them are very 
small. Three, however, are large and worth mentioning. 

142. The largest is placed in front of the lower end of the 
ear around the joint of the lower jaw, and has a small tube 
leading to the mouth. It is called the parotid gland. Another 



DIGESTION. 71) 

is placed just below the tongue, and is therefore called the sub- 
lingual gland. A third is found underneath the chin on each 
side, and is called the submaxillary gland. 

14.'). These glands pour some of the saliva into the mouth 
all the time, but they are especially active when we use the 
jaws either in speaking or in eating. If it were not for this 
fluid, the mouth would soon feel dry after talking a little. In 
eating anything dry, as a cracker, we notice that enough 
fluid forms in the mouth to moisten it thoroughly and thus en- 
able us to swallow the mass. It would be difficult to swallow 
this if it were dry. When the saliva is mixed well with the 
food, the stomach can act on the food at once and digest it 
more easily. This is another reason why we should chew our 
food well. 

144. There is still another reason. A small part of starchy 
food is digested by the saliva before it reaches the stomach, 
thus aiding the stomach in its work of digestion. 

145. Effects of Chewing Gum.— The habit of con- 
stantly chewing gum not only looks bad, but by making the 
saliva flow in large quantity all the time, it makes it thin and 
watery. Such saliva is apt to be inefficient in the proper per- 
formance of its work during meals. This habit is, therefore, 
not only vulgar, but unhealthy. 



THE THROAT. 

146. This is the wide part of the mouth behind, into which 
the food passes after it has been thoroughly chewed and when 
we swallow it. While we are swallowing, it passes into the 
throat. Once swallowed, the food passes into the canal leading 
to the stomach, the gullet, or oesophagus ; thence it continues 
its way without our knowledge or will (Fig. 36). 



80 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

THE TONGUE. 

147. This is also one of the organs of digestion, since by its 
movement the food is rolled around in the mouth and mixed 
thoroughly with saliva. The tongue also assists in swallowing. 
This organ will be described under the special senses, as it is 
also the organ of taste. 

THE GULLET, OR (ESOPHAGUS. 

148. This is a long tube (Fig. 36) which connects the mouth 
and throat with the stomach. Its walls are formed of rings of 
muscle-tissue. When these rings contract, the food is forced 
downward until it reaches the stomach. 

THE STOMACH. 

149. The stomach is a bag about a foot long, placed in the 
upper part of the abdomen, just below the diaphragm. The 
latter, as has already been mentioned, is the sheet of muscle- 
tissue separating the abdomen from the chest. The stomach 
commences near the middle of the body, and then extends over 
toward the right. There are two openings into the stomach. 
One is /or the entrance of food, which is carried by the gullet 
from the mouth ; and in order to reach the stomach, the gul- 
let must, of course, pass through the diaphragm. The other 
opening of the stomach is at the farther end, and allows the food 
to pass on into the intestines after the stomach has done its 
work. Around this opening is a narrowing which remains 
closed until the food is ready to be sent to the intestines. 
This narrowing is produced by a thickening of the tissue at 
this point, and is called the pylorus. 

150. The wall of the stomach is not very thick, but it is very 
strong. On the outside there is a smooth, shining coat, which 
is merely a part of a membrane lining the whole inside of the 



DIGESTION. 



81 



abdomen and the organs within it. This membrane is known as 
the peritoneum. On the inside there is a soft, velvety coat, 




Fig. 40. — The Stomach, Showing the Layer of Muscle-tissue by which it Contracts and 

Propels the Food. 



called the mucous layer (Fig. 41). We often meet with the 
term mucous membrane in anatomy. It refers to a soft, smooth, 



A^ 




Fig. 41.— The Inner Surface of the Stomach, Showing the Mucous Layer Arranged in Folds 



82 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



velvety membrane which is called the mucous membrane be- 
cause it forms a watery, slippery fluid called mucus; the fluid 
from the mouth between meals, and the fluid which runs from 
the nose are examples of mucus. Between these two surfaces, 
the mucous and the peritoneum, is a layer of muscle-tissue 
which forms the main part of the thickness of the stomach 
(Fig. 40). 

151. Gastric Juice. — The inner, or mucous layer of the 
stomach is arranged in a series of folds which are especially 
marked w r hen the stomach is empty. It is usually of a pink or 
a grayish color, but its color and appearance differ greatly, de- 
pending upon whether it contains food or not. "When food 

reaches the stomach, it excites it, 
and the soft lining then begins to 
swell, and becomes reddened. This 
mucous layer, when looked at under 
the microscope, shows a large num- 
ber of small dots or openings. 
When food is in the stomach, w^e 
can see drops of fluid escape from 
these dot-like openings. This fluid 
is called the gastric juice. 

152. The Gastric Tubules 
and the Gastric Juice.— The 
gastric juice is a very important 
fluid ; and it is found in the stom- 
ach only w T hen food is present, 
which food causes it to flow. Of 
course the lining of the stomach 
is never dry, but it is moistened 
only with mucus, except when 
excited by food, when as just stated gastric juice begins 
to flow. Upon examining this internal layer of the stomach 
under the microscope, we find thousands of small tubes, lined 
by little oblong bodies, which we call cells (Figs. 42 and 43). 




Fig. 42. — A Section of the Lining 
Membrane of the Stomach Very 
Highly Magnified, Showing the Gas- 
tric Tubules in Position. 



DIGESTION. 



83 



These cells pour the gastric juice into the small tubes, and from 
these it passes into the stomach and is mixed with the food. 
But, it may be asked, from what do these cells take the gastric 
juice? They get it from the blood. There are tiny blood- 
vessels everywhere, and certain portions of the blood pass 
through the walls of the blood-vessels into the cells, 
and are mixed there with other substances ; and in 
this way the gastric juice results. 

153. Pepsin, — The substance in the gastric juice 
which enables it to digest fleshy food is called pepsin. 

154. Function of the Gastric Juice. — The 
work of the gastric juice is to digest food. But it 
does not digest every sort of food. It will digest only 
fleshy food. Vegetable food is digested elsewhere — 
a little by the saliva, but chiefly in the small intes- 
tine. Fat, also, remains undigested in the stomach, 
and passes on to be digested in the small intestine. 

155. (1.) Uses of the Stomach.— One of the 
uses we have just stated, namely, to digest the fleshy 
part of the food, 

156. (2.) The second use of the stomach is to be a 
storehouse for the food. It takes between two and 
three hours to digest an ordinary meal. If there 
were no large bag in which the food could be kept 

until digested we should have to keep eating little by little all 
the time. The large size of the stomach also allows the gastric 
juice to be mixed quickly and thoroughly with the food, and 
thus digestion takes place more quickly than it otherwise would. 

157. (3.) Still another use of the stomach is to churn the 
food, and to roll it about so as to grind it into the smallest 
particles and mix it with the gastric juice. One of the coats of 
the stomach consists of muscle-tissue, and this coat causes these 
motions of the stomach. Besides, the lining of the stomach has 
a large number of raised lines or ridges (Fig. 41), which make 
the breaking-up of the food still easier. 



Fig. 43.- 
One of the 
Gastric Tu- 
bules. Very 
Highly Mag- 
nified, Show- 
ing the Cen- 
tral Canal 
and the Cells 
Lining the 
Tubule. 



84 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

158. Some of the lower animals, as the ox and cow, have four 
stomachs. Such animals swallow grass and hay without thor- 
oughly chewing them. Afterward this food passes back into the 
mouth again. It is then chewed over again, swallowed, and 
after passing through the series of stomachs, is finally digested. 

159. Effect of Tobacco on the Stomach.— When a per- 
son smokes tobacco for the first time, it makes him sick at his 
stomach. He may get used to the tobacco after a while ; but 
still, if he smokes much, he has the same disagreeable sensation. 
Many persons make the stomach weak and delicate, and spoil 
the appetite, by smoking and chewing tobacco. 

160. Effect of Alcohol on the Stomach. — Alcohol irri- 
tates the stomach and reddens the lining. After a while it 
hardens it, thins it, and renders it unfit to digest the food 
properly. 

161. The Discovery of How the Stomach Acts. — 
Many years ago, a Canadian named St. Martin was shot in the 
abdomen. He recovered with a permanent opening leading 
from the outside into the stomach, through which the doctors 
could watch and see what happened after eating. They found 
that ordinarily it took the stomach from two to three hours to 
finish its work, and to discharge what it could not digest into 
the small intestine or bowel. This man lived a great many 
years with the curious opening, and was quite strong and 
healthy. 

162. Certain kinds of food require a longer time than other 
kinds for digestion, and hence we call them heavy or indigest- 
ible ; other food is digested very quickly, and is called light, or 
easily digestible. As examples of heavy food may be men- 
tioned, hard-boiled eggs, pies, cheese, etc. As examples of 
easily digested food, there are milk, soft-boiled eggs, toast, 
broiled steak, etc. 



DIGESTION, 85 



THK BOWELS, OR [NTESTINES. 

163. These consist of a long, hollow tube, about twenty-five 
feet long, commencing at the stomach (Fig. 36). Where stom- 
ach and intestines meet is a narrow opening, which is closed, 
except when the stomach has digested what it can of the food, 
and wishes to empty what is left into the intestines. 

164. This narrowing is called, as has already been mentioned, 
the pyloims, meaning gatekeeper, and it will be seen that it is 
well-named, for it guards the outlet of the stomach. The rem- 
nants of food which the stomach refuses to digest pass this 
point in the form of a soft, creamy mass. 



SUBDIVISIONS OF THE INTESTINES. 

165. The intestines can be divided into three parts ; the first 
part, which is next to the stomach, is called the duodenum, a 
long word, which was given to it in olden times because it is 
about as long as twelve fingers put side by side, so that this 
part of the bowel is quite short. The second part is very long 
— twenty feet — and forms the principal part of the bowels. It 
is called the small intestine, and the word small is used because 
it is narrower than the rest. The remainder of the bowels 
(about five feet long) is the last portion, called the large intes- 
tine, because it is wider than the rest. 

166. The intestines are twenty-five feet long. In order that 
they may be contained in the abdomen they are folded together 
many times around a stem which is attached to the backbone. 
In this way they can move around somewhat, and yet they are 
kept in place by being held to the backbone. It will be seen 
later why it is necessary that they should be allowed a certain 
amount of motion so as to cause the food to move on. 

167. The intestines have the same coats as the stomach. 



86 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

There is on the outside a smooth, shining coat (the p> er itoneum). 
On the inside is a soft, smooth, velvety coat (the mucous 
coat). Between these two there is a coat formed of muscle- 
fibres, which run around the intestine in circles. There is 
much less muscle-tissue in the walls of the intestine than in 
those of the stomach. 

168. The Peritoneum- — The shining outside coat of the 
intestine is very important, and is formed of the same layer of 
tissue that lines the whole abdomen. The whole inside of the 
abdomen and the outside of all the organs within it are covered 
with this smooth sheet of tissue which we call the peritoneum. 
This covering is necessary so that the organs can move one 
upon another without pain, injury, or friction. The smooth 
surface is always kept moist by fluid. 

169. Motion of the Intestines- — The intestines are never 
quiet. They are in motion all the time. This motion resem- 
bles that of a worm, slow, gradual, and creeping. It is ac- 
complished by means of the muscle-fibres which exist in the 
walls. The object of this motion is to propel the food along 
so as to spread it out and hasten the absorption of the liquid 
and nourishing portions of the digested food. 

170. Projections on the Inner Surface of the Intes- 
tines. — The inner surface of the intestines looks pinkish and 
is velvety. It has a large number of valves or ridges (Fig. 44) 
running across it, which prevent the food from passing along 
too rapidly, so that all the nutritious portions may be absorbed. 
Besides these projections we find that the velvety appearance 
is due to the presence of millions of other very small projections 
(Fig. 45), which resemble hairs in shape, but are soft, and 
when looked at with the microscope are found covered with 
cells. We also find, when we examine the mucous lining of 
the intestines, a great many small tubes similar to those found 
in the stomach. 

171. The Work of the Intestines. — The intestines finish 
the digestion of the food. They also afford a lengthy surface 



DIGESTION. 



87 



over which the liquid and digested nutritious parts of the food 
can pass and be absorbed by the blood, which then brings them 
to different parts of the body. We found that a small part of 
starchy food is digested by the saliva and that the stomach di- 
gests the fleshy portions of the food. The intestines digest the 
rest, namely : (1) the larger part of starchy food which is not 
affected by the saliva, (2) the entire fatty portion of the food, 
and (3) any remnants of fleshy food which the stomach may 
have failed to act upon. 

172. Starch cannot be taken up by the blood until it has 




Fig. 44.— The Inner Surface of the Small 
Intestine, Showing the Valves or Ridges. 







K-4 
*»'»■*' * ^- ^ '■■ : ti*""'*p , « y>'" &* ."*« 



£e£L 



/l--.^' 



•A 



Fig. 45.— The Small Hair-like Projections 
from the Inner Surface of the Intestine. 
(Very highly magnified.) 



become changed into sugar. Fat must also first become al- 
tered by fluids in the intestines before the blood can absorb 
it. 

173. Openings into the Small Intestine.— The main 
work of the intestine takes place at the upper part near the 
stomach. Just below the stomach we find two openings leading 
into the part of the intestine known as the duodenum. One 
of these openings is the canal from the liver and the gall-bladder 



88 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY. AND HYGIENE. 



the other is the canal from the pancreas. Previous to discussing 
digestion in general, the organs furnishing these two canals 
will be considered. 

THE LIVER AND THE GALL-BLADDER. 




Fig. 46. — The Liver, Upper Surface. 



174. The liver (Figs. 36, 46, and 47) is a large organ of a 
brownish color, placed in the upper part of the abdomen, to the 
right of the stomach. It is just below the diaphragm and the 




Fig. 47. — The Liver, Under Surface ; Below, the Gall-bladder is Seen. 



lower ribs, which cover it in front and above by forming an arch 
over it. The liver is very heavy ; it is smooth on the outside, 



DIGESTION. 



80 



and covered by the same smooth membrane which covers all the 
organs of the abdomen, viz., the peritoneum. It is subdivided 
by deep lines into live sections called lobes. 

175. Uses of the Liver. — The liver is a very important 
organ. Its uses are, 

(1.) To make the bile. 

(2.) To purify the blood which passes through it. 
(3.) To add a certain nourishing body to the blood which 
passes through it. 

176. The Gall-bladder and Bile.— If we look at the liver 
under the microscope, so that it is very much enlarged, we shall 
see that it is formed entirely of 
small cells, like cubes, packed one 
against another (Fig. 48). These 
cells manufacture the bile, which is 
then collected by small tubes. 
Along the lower edge of the liver a 
bag about the size of an egg will be 
seen. This is called the gall-bladder 
(Figs. 36 and 47), and the tubes which 
collect the bile empty into it. This 
bag keeps the bile until it is wanted. 
The liver is making bile all the time and yet the intestines do 
not need it except when food is present ; hence there must be 
such a storehouse. 

177. Action of the Bile. — After the stomach has finished 
its work and the changed food has passed into the intestine, 
the bile which has been stored up in the gall-bladder is allowed 
to escape into the intestine by a small tube leading to one of 
the two openings in the duodenum already described. The 
bile is of a green or brown color. We do not know precisely 
what the bile does to the food ; but we are certain that bile 
must be mixed with it, for if it is absent a person cannot live 
very long. Sometimes bile gets into the blood and causes a 
yellow color of the skin, which we call jaundice. 




Fig. 



48. — The Liver-cells, 
Highly Magnified. 



Very 



90 A1NTATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND IIYGIEXE. 

178. There is a great deal of blood passing" through the 
liver, which is purified in its passage by the removal of certain 
unhealthy parts. 

179. After a meal there would be a great deal of nourishing 
matter thrown into the blood all at once ; and this would soon 
be used up and then there would be no more until the next 
meal. In order to prevent this, the liver takes care of a large 
amount of sugar and keeps it stored up, and then gradually lets 
it return little by little into the blood. 

180. The Unhealthy Liver. — Many sicknesses are caused 
by changes in the liver. If we eat too much at a time, or eat 
food which is too rich, as many wealthy people do, the liver be- 
comes diseased and does not remove the impurities of the 
blood as it should ; and these then remain in the blood and 
give much trouble. Perhaps some of you have seen old gen- 
tlemen limp along with the aid of a cane, unable to walk 
well because their big toes are swollen and sore ; they then 
have gout from too rich food, too much wine, and too little exer- 
cise. 

181. The Drunkard's Liver.— The liver suffers very 
much as the result of alcoholic drinking. It sometimes grows 
too large, and sometimes gets too small. The blood cannot 
flow through it as it should ; and so the liver cannot do its 
work properly. Thus the entire body suffers, and the most 
serious symptoms trouble the unfortunate man who leads the 
life of a drunkard. 

THE PANCREAS. 

182. This is one of the organs cf digestion (Fig. 36). The 
pancreas of the calf is sold by the butcher as sweetbread. This 
organ is not large, but is very important. It is placed just 
below the stomach. Its work is to prepare a fluid called the 
pancreatic juice. This is made by cells, just as in the liver. 
Small tubes then collect the fluid and open into one large 



DIGESTION. 91 

tube which empties into the commencement of the small in- 
testine. 

183. Uses of the Pancreatic Juice. — The pancreatic 
juice digests all parts of the food which are left after the saliva 
and the gastric juice of the stomach have acted upon them. 
Thus it digests fat and starch, and it will also digest any of 
{he fleshy food which the stomach has neglected to change. It 
is consequently a very important fluid. 

ABSORPTION. 

184. All the fluids of digestion just described — the saliva, 
gastric juice, and pancreatic juice — simply change the chewed 
food, so that the blood can take it up or absorb it as nourish- 
ment ; and this action of these fluids is called digestion. There 
still remains to be seen how the blood absorbs this nourish- 
ment, and what it does with it. 

185. If we look at one of the smallest blood-vessels (Fig. 53) 
it will be found that the walls consist of the very thinnest 
membrane, and that this allows fluids to pass through quite 
readily. In the lining of the stomach and intestines we find a 
great many of these tiny blood-vessels ; as the food reaches 
these places and has become digested, it passes into the blood- 
vessels and is carried with the blood to the different parts of 
the body, to be used in farming and building up tissues which 
are constantly being consumed. 

186. Lacteal s. — Besides passing directly into the blood- 
vessels, the digested food also passes into certain other tubes 
of very small size, like blood-vessels, except that they do not 
contain blood. These small tubes are called lacteals, from a 
Latin word meaning milk, because the nourishing fluid which 
they carry and afterward add to the blood looks white, like 
milk, during digestion. These lacteals finally empty into large 
reins at the lower part of the neck (Fig. 62). 



92 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

HABITS WHICH ARE INJURIOUS TO PROPER DIGESTION. 

187. (1.) Eating too rapidly. When the food is eaten too 
rapidly it cannot be chewed properly, and the result is that it 
is swallowed in large pieces. The stomach has great difficulty 
in digesting these large pieces and thus indigestion and dyspep- 
sia, result if the practice be continued. 

188. (2.) Eating too much at a time. This gives the organs 
of digestion too much work to do, and on this account all the 
food cannot be digested. We should not continue to eat until 
we feel heavy and uncomfortable, but should stop before we 
feel this way. 

189. (3.) Eating too many sweets and sours. While a pickle 
occasionally at meals, or candy and cake now and then, will do 
no harm, if these things are taken constantly they are injurious, 
because they destroy the appetite for nourishing food. 

190. (4.) Chewing gum gives the salivary glands too much 
work, and thus the saliva soon becomes too thin and does not 
act as it should. 

191. (5.) A large amount of ice-water. A little ice-water, taken 
slowly, will do no harm, whether during meals or at other times ; 
but to drink down a gobletful rapidly when the body is heated 
is very unhealthy, as it chills the stomach and delays diges- 
tion. 

192. (6.) Violent exercise immediately after a meal. This 
should not be indulged in, for at that time the stomach needs 
all the blood it can get ; and violent exercise drives too great a 
proportion to the muscles. 

193. (7.) Severe brain ivork directly after meals is not good. 

194. (8.) Bathing should not be indulged in within two hours 
after an ordinary meal. 

195. (9.) Excitement of any hind, as good news or bad news 
just before a meal, usually takes away our appetite. If w r e eat, 
nevertheless, the food will not be digested, or only very imper- 
fectly. 



DIGESTION. &3 

196. (10.) Alcoholic drink makes food less digestible, espe- 
cially if it be strong drink; and it also irritates the stomach 
needlessly. 

107. (11.) Smoking will destroy the appetite and interfere 
with digestion in many persons. 

THE SPLEEN. 

198. The spleen (Fig. 36) is not one of the organs of diges- 
tion ; but its description will be given at this place, because it 
is placed in the abdomen. It is a round, flattened organ, solid, 
and contains a great deal of blood. It is found on the left 
side of the abdomen just underneath the lower ribs. Its use 
is not exactly known ; but lately, however, it has been thought 
to take part in supplying the globules to the blood. It be- 
comes enlarged in all malarial diseases, and then sometimes 
reaches an enormous size. 

SYNOPSIS. 

Digestion — The changing of the food and its liquefaction, so that 
the blood can absorb it. 

Organs of Digestion : Mouth. 
Teeth. 

Salivary Glands. 
Tongue. 
Throat. 
Gullet. 
Stomach. 

c Duodenum. 
Intestines. < Small Intestine. 
' Large Intestine. 
Liver. 
Pancreas. 
Mouth — To chew the food and mix it with saliva. 

a. Tongue — Assists in mixing food with saliva and in 
swallowing. 

b. Teeth: 

-. j a. Temporary or milk teeth — ten in each jaw. 
( b. Permanent — sixteen in each jaw. 



94 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

Four incisors. 
Two canine. 
Four bicuspid. 
Six molars. 

2. Divisible into 

i Crown. 

a. Parts : ■< Neck. 

( Boot. 
( Enamel. 

b. Structure : ■< Dentine. 

( Pulp (cavity). 

3. Care of — Should be kept clean. 

Brushing. 
Toothpicks. 
Improper use. - 
Tobacco. 
c. Salivary Glands : 

1. Location : 

(1.) Parotid — In front and below eai\ 
(2.) Sublingual — Below tongue. 
(3.) Submaxillary — Below jaw. 

2. Saliva. 

(1.) Produced during chewing. 
(2.) Moistens food. 
(3.) Digests a part of starchy food. 
(4.) Keeps mouth moist. 
(5.) Watery, clear fluid. 
(6.) Necessity for thorough chewingc 
(7.) Effect of chewing gum. 
Throat : 

1. Between mouth and gullet. 

2. Concerned in swallowing. 
Tongue : 

1. Mixes food with saliva. 

2. Assists in swallowing. 

3. Organ of taste. 
Gullet or (Esophagus : 

1. Connects throat and stomach. 

2. Formed of rings of muscle-tissue. 

3. These force food into stomach. 



DIGE8TI0N. 95 

Stomach : 

1. Position — Upper part of abdomen, just below dia- 
phragm. 

2. Openings— One for entrance of food ; other (pylorus) 
into intestines. 

3. Coats : 

(1.) Outer — Peritoneum. 
(2.) Middle— Muscle-tissue. 
(3.) Inner — Mucous membrane. 

4. Uses : 

(1.) To secrete gastric juice, which — 

a. Is formed during digestion. 

b. Digests fleshy food. 

c. Contains pepsin. 

d. Is formed in the gastric tubules. 
(2.) A storehouse for the food. 

(3. ) To churn the food and break it into small particles. 

5. Effects of alcohol and tobacco — Alcohol irritates, to- 
bacco sickens. 

6. Discovery of action — St. Martin ; opening in stomach. 

7. Digestibility — Heavy and light food. 
The Intestines : 

1. Connection with stomach — By pylorus. 

2. Subdivisions : 

a. Duodenum. 

b. Small intestine. 

c. Large intestine. 

3. Length — Twenty-five feet. 

4. Attachment — To backbone. 

5. Coats — Same as stomach : 

a. Outer or peritoneum. 

b. Middle or muscle tissue. 

c. Inner or mucous membrane. 

6. Motion — To propel food and digested fluids. 

7. Projections from inner surface : 

a. Valves or ridges. 

b. Hair-like projections. 

8. Function : 

a. Digest starchy food. 



96 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

b. Digest fatty food. 

c. Digest remnants of fleshy food. 
9. Openings : 

a. From liver and gall-bladder. 

b. From pancreas. 
The Liver and Gall-bladder : 

1. Position — Upper part of abdomen, to right of stom- 
ach. 

2. Description — Large, solid, brownish, subdivided into 
fi.Ye sections or lobes. 

3. Uses: 

a. To make bile. 

b. To purify the blood. 

c. To add nourishment to the blood ; storehouse. 

4. Bile: 

a. Color — Greenish or brownish. 

b. Action — Not exactly known. 

c. If gets into blood — Jaundice. 

5. Unhealthy Liver — From too rich food, too much wine, 
too little exercise ; Gout. 

6. Drunkard's Liver — Too large or too small. 
The Pancreas : 

1. Position — Just below stomach. 

2. Use — To form pancreatic juice, which — 

a. Digests fat. 

b. Digests starch. 

c. Digests remains of fleshy food. 

Absorption — The taking up of digested food in fluid form by the 
blood and lymphatics : 

1. By blood-vessels. 

2. By lymphatic vessels. 

3. By lacteals. 

Habits Injurious to Proper Digestion : 

1. Eating too quickly. 

2. Eating too much at a time. 

3. Eating too many sweets and sours. 

4. Chewing gum. 

5. Ice-water in large amount. 

6. Violent exercise immediately after meals. 



DIGESTION". 97 

7. Severe brain-work immediately after meals. 

8. Bathing after meals. 

9. Excitement before, during, or after meals. 

10. Alcoholic drink. 

11. Smoking- or chewing tobacco. 
The Spleen : 

1. Description — Bound, flattened, solid organ full of blood 

2. Position — Left side of abdomen, underneath lower ribs. 

3. Use — Probably to supply globules to the blood. 

4. Enlarged — In malarial diseases. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What is meant by the word digestion? 2. Name the organs 
of digestion ? 3. What are the teeth for ? 4. What are the tem- 
porary teeth ? 5. When do we begin to have our permanent teeth ? 
6. How many permanent teeth are there in each jaw ? 7. What are 
the parts of each tooth? 8. Are the teeth solid or hollow? 9. 
What names are given to the different teeth ? 10. Which are the 
incisor teeth, what is their shape and their use ? 11. What is pecu- 
liar about the canine tooth? 12. What about the bicuspid teeth ? 
13. What about the molar teeth ? 14. Of which three parts does 
each tooth consist ? 15. What is the proper way of taking care of 
the teeth? 16. What effect has tobacco on the teeth? 17. What 
are the salivary glands ? 18. Where are they found ? 19. What is 
their use ? 20. What is saliva ? 21. What are the uses of saliva ? 
22. What are the effects of chewing gum upon the saliva ? 23. 
Where is the gullet ? 24. Where does it lead to? 25. What is the 
shape of the stomach? 26. Where is it placed? 27. What open- 
ings are there in the stomach ? 28. What coats are there to the 
wall of the stomach ? 29. How does the inside of the stomach look 
when it is empty ? 30. How does it look when food enters the 
stomach ? 31. What is the gastric juice ? 32. How is the gastric 
juice made ? 33. Of what use is the gastric juice ? 34. When does 
the gastric juice flow ? 35. What kind of food is digested by the 
gastric juice? 36. What is pepsin ? 37. What are the three uses 
of the stomach ? 38. Have any animals more than one stomach ? 
39. How does the ox digest hay? 40. What effects have tobacco 
and alcohol upon the stomach? 41. How was the way in which the 



98 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

stomach acts in man discovered ? 42. What is meant by heavy 
food? 43. What is meant by light food? 44. Give examples of 
each. 45. What is another name for the bowels ? 46. How long 
are the bowels? 47. How do the bowels connect with the stomach ? 
48. What kinds of food are still undigested when they leave the 
stomach? 49. What is the pylorus? 50. Into what three parts 
can the intestines be divided ? 51. What is the name given to each 
part? 52. How are the intestines arranged so that they can all find 
room in the abdomen ? 53. To what are the intestines attached ? 
54. What coats have the intestines ? 55. What can you say about 
the outside shining coat of the intestines ? 56. What is the peri- 
toneum, and what does it cover? 57. Tell about the lining of the 
intestines. 58. What is the work of the intestines? 59. What 
kinds of food are digested by the small intestine? 60. In what part 
of the small intestine does most of the work take place ? 61. What 
openings are there into the first part of the small intestine? 62. 
Where is the liver placed ? 63. What are the three uses of the 
liver? 64. Where is the gall-bladder? 65. How is bile made? 
66. What does it look like? 67. When is bile needed in the intes- 
tine ? 68. How does the bile get into the intestine ? 69. What 
can you say of the uses of bile ? 70. What is jaundice ? 71. 
How does the liver become diseased? 72. What is the cause of 
gout ? 73. What effect has alcohol upon the liver ? 74. Where is 
the pancreas ? 75. What is it commonly called by the butcher ? 
76. WTiat fluid is produced by the pancreas ? 77. What are the uses 
of the pancreatic juice ? 78. What kinds of food are digested by the 
pancreatic juice? 79. How does the blood take up the nourishing 
parts of the food which have become digested ? 80. What are the 
lacteals, what do they do, and why are they so-called? 81. Are 
the intestines usually quiet or in motion ? 82. Why is it necessary 
for them to be in motion ? 83. Mention some of the habits which 
are injurious to digestion ? 84. Explain why eating too quickly or 
too much at a time is injurious. 85. How should ice- water be 
taken ? 86. Why should we not exercise directly after meals ? 87. 
What effect has excitement of any kind upon digestion ? 88. What, 
effect have alcohol and alcoholic drinks upon digestion ? 89. Where 
is the spleen? 90. What does it look like? 91. What do we know 
about its use ? 



DIGESTION. 



99 




Fig. 49. — The Blood-vessels. In the right half of the figure the arteries are shown ; in 
the left half, the veins. 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE BLOOD AND THE CIRCULATION— THE HEART AND 
THE BLOOD-VESSELS. 

199. If you cut your finger you notice a reel fluid escaping 
from the wound which you call blood. If the cut be a slight 
one, only a little blood will be lost, and the accident will not 
worry you much ; but if it be deeper, you may have trouble in 
stopping the bleeding, and you would feel alarmed, for every- 
one knows how important the blood is. It is called life's fluid, 
and it deserves the name ; for if one-quarter of the blood is 
lost, life would be in danger ; and if one-third were lost, certain 
death would result. 

200. Appearance of Blood. — Blood is a thin fluid of a 
red color. If we look at the blood of an artery, the color is bright 
red ; but in the veins the blood is of a dark red color. Why 
this difference exists will be explained later. Although it has 
this red color, the fluid part of the blood is not red, but yellow- 
ish. It looks red because there are a great many small red 
bodies floating in it. These we call the blood-globules. 

201. Composition of the Blood. — The blood is composed 
of a yelloivish fluid, called plasma, in which we find millions 
of small bodies, mostly of a red color, which w T e call the blood- 
globules. 

202. Blood-globules. — If w r e take a drop of blood and 
look at it under the microscope, we can easily see these blood- 
globules. Even in a small drop of blood, there are about ten 
millions of them, which will give an idea of the great number 
there must be in the entire body. 



THE P.LOOn AM) THE CIRCULATION. 



101 



203. The Microscope. —This instrument has often been 
alluded to in these pages, and is constantly 
used in studying the finer structure of 

d i tie rent parts of the body. Probably 
everyone knows what a magnifying-glass 
is, and has seen it used for making* objects 
look larger. Perhaps, too, many of you 
have brought the rays of the sun together 
into a small spot on your hand and found 
how this burns. On this account, the mag- 
nifying-glass is often called a burning- 
glass. Such a magnifying-glass makes 
objects appear five or six times as large as 
they really are. If several very strong 
magnifying-glasses were placed one over 
another in a metal tube (Fig. 50), objects 
looked at through all of them would 
appear a hundred, or even a thousand 
times larger than they really were, and 
this would constitute a microscope. 

204. Red Blood-globules. — If a drop of blood be looked 
at under the microscope, the yellow fluid is seen plainly, and 
in it we also see the blood -globules in great numbers. Most 

of these globules are of a reddish color, 
flat, with the edge a little thicker than 
the centre. These are called the red 
blood-globules. After the blood leaves 
the body, these red blood-globules are 
apt to stick together at their sides (Fig. 
51), and in this way columns are formed 
looking like rolls of coin piled one upon 
another. 

205. White Blood-globules.— Be- 
sides the red blood-globules there are others which are white, 
and somewhat larger than the red (Fig. 51). These are not fiat, 




Fig. 50.— The Microscope. 




Fig. 51. — Human Red and 
White Blood-globules. The red 
globules are seen to be flattened 
and in rolls : the white ones are 
■lone, dotted, and larger. 



102 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



but perfectly round, like a sphere, and have two or three spots 
in their centre. There are very few of these white bodies, 
which we call white blood-globules, compared to the large number 
of the red ones. We call both the red and the white ones glob- 
ules, because of their shape, the word globule meaning a little 
sphere. 

206. The Plasma. — The watery, fluid portion of the blood 
in which the red and the white blood-globules float is called 
the blood-plasma. 

207. Blood of Other Animals.— In other animals, as in 
man, the blood is red and is formed of plasma, red blood-glob- 
ules, and white blood-globules. 
There is, however, one difference 

gB" ^ \ in some animals. In man the red 
<^V>a blood-globules are flattened, cir- 
cular, and perfectly clear, having 
no spots in the centre. 

In many of the larger animals, 
and in all of our domestic animals, 
the red blood-globules have this 

Fig. 52.— The Red Blood-globules in same shape. But ill the blood of 

Birds, Fishes, and Reptiles (on left of .. , 

figure) as compared with Those of Man birds, fimes, and certain other ani- 

(right half of figure). , , ,, . 

mals like snakes and alligators, 
which we call reptiles, the red blood-globules, while still of the 
same color as in man, are oval in shape, and have a sj)ot in 
the centre (Fig. 52). 

208. Use of the Red Blood-globules.— The red blood- 
globules have a very important use, to explain which it will be 
necessary to say something about the air we breathe. The air 
is made up principally of twc gases : One-fifth is a rich gas 
called oxygen. It is the gas which is necessary for life. The 
rest is a gas called nitrogen, which serves to dilute the oxygen 
so that it may not be too rich, but just right for breathing. 
When we inhale air it passes into our lungs and stays there a 
short time, and while there the blood takes some of the oxygen 




THE BLOOD AM) THE CIRCULATION. 103 

from the air. In tbe lungs there are a greal many small blood- 
is. The oxygen passes through the thin walls of these 

and the blood flowing along takes it up. The watery part of 
the blood cannot take up the oxygen ; the red blood-globules 
do this. At the same time the color of the blood, which was 
dark red before the oxygen was taken up, changes to a bright 
red. After the red blood-globules have taken up this valuable 
gas, they carry it to different parts of the body and give it to 
the tissues which have become used up, so that they become 
built up again. 

209. Use of the Plasma. — The fluid part of the blood also 
has a special use. When the different tissues of the body are 
being used up, they give off a poisonous gas which is called 
carbonic acid gas. This gas is quite heavy and often collects at 
the bottom of wells or in cellars that have been dark and shut 
up for a long time. You sometimes read of people losing their 
lives by going down into such wells and cellars, for this gas is 
so poisonous that the people cannot breathe it and they choke 
to death. In such cases, if it is suspected that this gas may be 
collected there, a lighted candle should first be lowered into 
them ; if it will not burn, it would be dangerous there for a 
human being. For where this carbonic acid gas is present, the 
oxygen is absent or very little is present, and the candle re- 
quires oxygen to burn just as w r e do to breathe and live. After 
the plasma has taken up this poisonous carbonic acid gas, it 
carries it to the lungs where it passes through the walls of the 
blood-vessels and escapes into the air. This is the reason why 
the air wdiich we breathe out is not so pure as that which we 
breathe in. 

210. Difference between the Blood in Arteries and 
the Blood in Veins. — The blood flowing in the arteries is of 
a bright red color, because it has just received a supply of oxy- 
gen from the air in the lungs, and has given up its poisonous 
gas to the air The blood in the veins is of a dark red color 
because the tissues have robbed it of the oxygen which it had 



104 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

before, and have given it a large supply of the poisonous car- 
bonic acid gas. The blood in veins is warmer than that of 
arteries. 

211. Clotting of the Blood.— While the blood is in the 
body and in the vessels through which it usually moves, it is 
fluid. But if taken from the body, and placed in the air, it 
very soon becomes thicker and thicker, and finally is a soft 
solid, about as thick as jelly. If in a cup, it may then be turned 
out, and like jelly, it will retain the shape of the cup. In addi- 
tion to the thick part, a quantity of yellow fluid will also be 
found to have separated. Blood never becomes hard, even 
when it solidifies ; it becomes a soft jelly-like solid. This 
change of the blood from the fluid to the solid state after it is 
removed from the blood-vessels is called clotting. The thick- 
ened blood we call a clot, while the yellow fluid which separates 
is called the serum. It is, of course, not natural for blood to 
clot ; this happens only when the blood is exposed to the air, or 
when there has been some change in the blood-vessel. It is 
quite difficult to understand why this thickening occurs, but 
if w r e examine the blood under the microscope after it has 
clotted we see that a large number of very fine hair-like bodies 
called fibres have appeared, and that these run in every di- 
rection and across one another, and that the blood-globules 
have been caught and entangled among them ; and this makes 
the blood thicken. 

212. Value of the Clotting of Blood.— This thickening 
or clotting of blood is of the greatest importance. If it were 
not for this we should bleed to death every time we cut our- 
selves. For when a wound is made, the blood flows until a 
crust forms, and this crust stops the bleeding. This crust is 
the same thickening, or clotting, of which we have been speak- 
ing, and there would be no w T ay to stop bleeding permanently if 
it were not for this. You might press your finger on the wound 
and stop the bleeding in this way, but as soon as you took your 
finger off the blood would flow again. 



THE BLOOD AND THE CIRCULATION. 



105 



213. The Circulation. — Thus far we have been speaking 
of the blood itself. Now we will study how the blood flows 
through the body, for our blood is constantly moving. This 
we can see very well in the frog. If we take some part of the 
frog, as for instance, one of the thin parts of the foot, and 
spread it out and look at it under the microscope, w r e shall 
see the blood in motion. The only reason we cannot see it in 
man is that there is no part thin enough and transparent 
enough for us to see through. If we examine the thin part 
of the frog's foot in this way we shall see a number of tubes, 




Fig. 53.— The Blood in Motion, as Seen in the Small Blood-vessels of the Frog's Foot. 



and in the centre a fluid full of small bodies — some red, some 
white — these are the blood-globules. It will be seen that 
there are a great many red ones and only a few white ones. 
And you can also notice that the red ones hurry along, a great 
many in company, in the centre of the stream, while the few 
white ones seem to rub against the wall of the blood-vessel, 
and go along quite slowly. It is a beautiful sight and is an- 
other illustration of how wonderfully we are constructed. In 



106 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



studying the manner in which blood flows through our bodies 
it will be necessary to commence with a description of the 
heart, the arteries, the veins, and the capillaries. 



THE HEART. 



214. Situation of the Heart.— The heart is the most 
important organ in the body. It is placed in the chest, be- 




Fig. 54. —The Heart in Its Natural Position. It is surrounded by its sac, the pericardium ; 
on each side the lungs are seen ; above, the large vessels are seen springing from it. In 
order to see all this the front of the chest is represented as having been removed. 



tween the lungs, and is covered in front by the breast-bone 
(Fig. 54). It projects beyond the breast-bone on each side, but 



THE BLOOD AND THE CIRCULATION. 



107 



more to the left than to the right. If the hand be placed upon 
the front of the chest on the left side the bent of the heart can 
be felt. This corresponds to the position of the pointed end of 
the heart. If the ear be placed over this spot the sound made 
by the beating of the heart can be heard. 

215. Form of the Heart.— The heart is shaped like acone, 
with the wide part above and the point below. It measures 
five inches from one end to the other. It is hollow (Figs. 56 
and 57), and its walls are formed of muscle-tissue. 

21G. The Pericardium. — The heart is surrounded by a sac, 
called the pericardium, mean- 
ing around the heart. Between 
this sac and the heart is a 
space in which a little fluid is 
found. 

217. Cavities of the 
Heart. — The heart is hollow, 
so as to have spaces through 
which the blood can flow. It 
has four such spaces. If we 
look at the heart from the out- 
side, we can first divide it into 
two halves, a left and a right 
The right and the left sides of 
the heart are separated by a 
groove which runs from the 
wide part of the heart above 
to the point below. Then 
there is a horizontal groove, 
which runs across this vertical 
one and divides each side into 
two smaller parts, an upper 
and a lower. If we examine 
the interior of the heart we find four spaces. The partitions 
which separate these spaces are placed within, exactly where 




Fig. 55.— Tho Heart and the Large Vessels 
Given oft' from it. 



108 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 




Fig. 56.— Outline 
Sketch Showing the 
Arrangement of the 
Cavities of the Heart. 
A, Right Auricle; B, 
Left Auricle; C, Right 
Ventricle ; D, Left 
Ventricle. 



the grooves are found on the outside. So that each side of the 
heart has two spaces, an upper and a lower (Figs. 56' and 57). 
The upper spaces are called auricles, and the 
lower ventricles. Consequently, there is a 
right auricle and a left auricle, and a right 
ventricle and a left ventricle. The ventricles 
are much larger than the auricles. The wall 
of the heart is much thicker on the left side 
than it is on the right. 

218. Function of the Heart. — The heart 
serves to pump the blood into the blood-ves- 
sels with such force that it flows all through 
the body. The walls of the heart are made of 
muscle, and this muscle is constantly contract- 
ing, and each time it contracts we say it beats. 
"When it does this the whole heart becomes 
smaller, and its cavities become smaller, and thus the blood is 
forced out. After this the heart expands again, its auricles and 
ventricles become wider, and the blood flows into them from 
the veins until the heart becomes filled. These actions of the 
heart are being continually repeated. 

219. Frequency of the Heart-beats.— In the grown per- 
son, the heart beats about seventy times a minute. In the 
child, it beats eighty or more. In the old person it may only 
beat sixty a minute. When sick with fever, the heart works 
more rapidly than in health, and then often beats over a hun- 
dred a minute. 

220. Course of the Blood.— When the blood leaves the 
heart it passes from the right side of the heart to the lungs, 
thence it returns to the left side of the heart, thence it passes 
into the arteries all through the body, and thence it returns 
through the veins to the right side of the heart (Fig. 58). The 
way in which the blood circulates and its course were discov- 
ered in 1618, by an Englishman, named Harvey. It was a won- 
derful discovery. Before Harvey's time nothing was known 



THE BLOOD AND THE CIRCULATION. 100 

about the way in which the blood flows. The ancients imagined 
that the arteries contain air. 




Fig. 57.— The Heart (the Front ha* Been Removed). Showing the Interior. 

221. The Circulation through the Lungs.— All the 

blood passes from the veins into the right side of the heart, 
first into the upper space (auricle), and thence into the lower 
space (ventricle). When these two become full of blood the 
heart contracts and squeezes out the blood into a large artery 
(the pulmonary artery), which carries it to the lungs. Here 
the blood passes into smaller and smaller arteries, and, finally, 



110 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

into the very finest tubes, which we call the capillaries (from 
a Latin word meaning a hair, because they are so very 
small). 

222. While the blood flows through these capillaries of the 
lung, it meets the air taken in when we inhale : and from this 



Fig. 58. — Diagram Showing the Course of the Blood Through the Heart, Lungs, and Body 

in General. 



air it absorbs the oxygen, and gives to it the poisonous carbonic 
acid gas. Thus in passing through the lungs the blood has 
gained oxygen and lost the poisonous gas; and in doing this it 
changes from the dark red color it had before to a bright red 
color ; it is now purified. The capillaries soon join to form 



THE BLOOD AND THE CIRCULATION. Ill 

larger and larger tubes, and these unite to form several large 
blood-vessels, which carry the purified blood back to the heart. 
But this time it passes to the left side of the heart, first through 
the left auricle and then through the left ventricle. When 
enough blood has flowed into the heart, it contracts and 
squeezes it out into a very large blood-vessel (the aorta), which 
carries it to the tissues in the different parts of the body. 
223 All this is shown very well in diagram in Fig. 58. 




Fig. 59. — The Valves of the Heart, and Between the Heart and the Large Vessels which 

Leave It. 



Starting above, we see the heart ; the shaded part to the left 
representing the right side. The impure blood passes hence 
to the lungs, gradually becoming purified and brighter as 
it passes through this organ. From the lungs it is seen 
to pass in its bright color to the left side of the heart 
(which is the portion of the heart unshaded on the diagram). 
Hence it passes along, as the arrow indicates, to the different 
parts of the body, called on the diagram the system. Pass- 
ing through the system and through the abdominal organs, 



112 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

as shown in the diagram, the blood gradually becomes darker, 
and is shown to be carried by the large veins back again into 
the right side of the heart, the point at which we began to 
trace it. 

224. Valves of the Heart. — The valves of the heart resem- 
ble lids which are placed between the different spaces in the 
heart. They allow the blood to flow one way, but when it at- 
tempts to return in the opposite direction, they close up and 
prevent it. Fig. 59 shows them closed, thus shutting off and 
separating the different cavities of the heart. There are also 
similar valves placed betw r een the heart and the large vessels 
which leave it. It will readily be seen how important it is that 
such a valve should exist between the left ventricle and the 
large artery which distributes the blood to the different parts 
of the body, the aorta; this valve prevents the blood from flow- 
ing back into the heart after it has been forced into the aorta. 

THE BLOOD-VESSELS. 

225. Those blood-vessels which take the purified blood from 
the heart and distribute it to all parts of the body are called 
arteries. The blood-vessels which return the used-up blood 
from the tissues to the heart are called veins. Between the 
smallest arteries and the smallest veins are the very finest 
blood-vessels, which are called capillaries. So that the blood, 
after being purified, passes through arteries, then capillaries, 
then veins. 

226. The Arteries. — The large artery which leaves the left 
side of the heart, the aorta, soon divides and subdivides, and 
these branches pass in many different directions, constantly giv- 
ing off other and smaller branches. A tree forms a very good 
example of how the arteries run in the body ; the large trunk 
of the tree corresponds to the large artery which leaves the 
heart, and the branches correspond to the branches of these 
arteries. 



THE BLOOD AM) THE CIRCULATION. 1.13 

227. The Pulse. — When you arc sick, and the doctor is 
called, one of the first things he does is to feel your pulse. He 
will put his linger upon your wrist and he will take out his 
watch. Why does he do this? He is counting your pulse. 
If you put your finger upon your own wrist, in front, on the 
side on which the thumb is, you will feel something beat- 
ing. This is an artery, and the beating you feel is your 
pulse. Every time the heart beats the arteries beat, and this 
gives what is called the pulse. This will be understood if it 
be remembered that. every time the heart contracts it pumps 
blood into the arteries, and every time another heartful of blood 
is forced into the arteries, being elastic, they expand and grow 
wider. It is this expansion which is felt with your finger, and 
which is called the pulse. When the doctor counts the pulse, 
he can tell how slowly or how rapidly the heart is beating ; for 
the pulse is the same in number as the heart-beats. The rea- 
son we usually take the pulse at the wrist is because it is most 
convenient ; but there is a pulse in every artery of any size in 
the whole body. You can feel one at your temples, one at the 
side of your neck, and in many other places. 

228. The Capillaries. — These are the very smallest blood- 
vessels, and they connect the arteries with the veins. We find 
the capillaries almost everywhere. They are so small that we 
cannot see them without the use of the microscope. If you 
scratch yourself and a little blood comes, this is from some of 
the capillaries, not from an artery or vein ; for if an artery or 
vein is injured it is more serious. It is while the blood is pass- 
ing through the capillaries from the arteries to the veins, that 
the tissues take from it the oxygen and give up to it the poi- 
sonous carbonic acid gas. And after this change has taken 
place, the color of the blood has changed from the bright red 
of the purified blood in the arteries to the dark red of the im- 
pure blood in the veins. 

229. The Veins. — After the blood has passed through the 
different tissues by means of the capillaries these unite to form 



114 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



the smallest veins, and many of these join to form larger ones, 
until finally we have a single large vein, just as we had a sin- 
gle large artery. But there is this difference : The artery 
started from the heart and went to the tissues ; the veins 
start in the tissues and gradually join into a large one which 
goes to the heart. The arteries, too, contained bright-red, 
pure blood ; the veins are filled with dark-red or purple, im- 
pure blood. 

230. Valves of the Veins. — There is still another differ- 
ence between veins and arteries : Veins have valves (Fig. 60). 

In the arteries the blood has no 
difficulty in going anywhere, 
even up-hill, because the heart 
pumps it along with consider- 
able force. But there is nothing 
of this sort behind the blood in 
the veins, for after the blood has 
travelled through the capillaries 
it has lost most of the force 
given it by the heart. It would 
therefore be impossible for the 
blood to flow up-hill in the veins, 
as, for instance, in the legs, if 
there were not some arrange- 
ment for this purpose. This 
arrangement consists in having 
valves (Fig. 60) which allow the 

blood to flow toward the heart, but close up, and thus prevent 

it from going in the opposite direction. 

231. Rapidity of the Circulation of the Blood.— The 
blood flows through its vessels very quickly, and it takes about 
half a minute for it to pass from the heart through the lungs, 
all through the body and back again to the heart. How many 
blood-vessels must it pass through in this short time ! 

232. Fainting. — When a person becomes pale and would 




Fig. 60.— A Pair of Valves in One of the 
Veins. They are open ; the direction of the 
flow of blood is indicated by the arrow. 



THE BLOOD AND THE CIRCULATION. 



llfi 



fall if he did not hold on to something, we say he lias fainted. 

This often happens after he has been sick and tries to walk 
before he is strong enough. The proper thing to do for such a 
person is to lay him down perfectly flat. There should be no 
pillow underneath the head. If possible, the head should be 
even lower than the rest of the body so that the blood may run 
into the head and fill the blood-vessels of the brain ; for the 
usual reason for the fainting is that the heart becomes weak and 




Fig. 81. — Method of Controlling Bleeding from a Large Wound. 



has not sufficient force to send enough blood to the brain. It 
is also important that no crowd should gather around the person, 
so that he can get all the air possible. The extremities should 
be stroked or rubbed toward the trunk, so as to facilitate the 
flow of blood. 

233. Bleeding. — If we hurt ourselves in any way and the 
bleeding is slight, it will usually stop of itself or after we ap- 
ply a little court-plaster. But suppose we receive a deep cut 
and the blood flows freely and we cannot stop it, what shall 



116 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

we do until the doctor arrives? We should press upon the in- 
jured -part just above the cut, or tie a string around it instead 
of pressing with the ringer. For instance, if it is the tip of the 
finger which is bleeding very much, we can tie a string around 
the finger an inch or so above the cut and this will stop the 
bleeding. If it is a larger part, as the arm or the forearm, 
tie a handkerchief around the limb above the injury and 
tighten this by means of a stick put under the handkerchief, 
and twist until it is very tight (Fig. 61). Another name for 
bleeding is hemorrhage, 

234 How to have a Good Circulation. — If we wish to 
be in good health, the circulation must be good and brisk. If 
the circulation be sluggish, we are apt to suffer in all parts of 
the body, because no part gets as much blood as it should. With 
a poor circulation the feet are apt -to be cold in winter, the per- 
son catches cold easily, he is quickly chilled, he may have head- 
ache, and he is not in the best of health. If we want good 
health, our circulation must be good. 

235. Exercise is the great medicine for a good circulation. 
Any good form of exercise will answer and exercise in the open 
air is the best, because while we are making our blood go 
faster we are also getting more oxygen to the tissues and build- 
ing them up more quickly. Too much exercise, making one 
very tired, or too severe exercise, such as lifting too heavy 
weights, is injurious, because it tires out the heart and makes 
it weak. And if the exercise be much too severe there is even 
danger of bursting a small blood-vessel, though this does not 
happen often. 

236. Effects of Alcohol upon the Heart and the Cir- 
culation. — Alcoholic drink passes into the blood and irritates 
the heart, and as a result the heart may become too large. It 
might be thought that there would be no objection to having 
the heart too large, but this is not so. For when the heart is 
not of the right size it does not act properly and sickness re- 
sults. The heart of a drunkard often contains a large amount 



THE BLOOD AND THE OIROULATIOtt. 117 

of fat, which weakens it and it then has not power enough to force 
the blood into the arteries properly, and the different parts of 
the body receive too little blood and become pale and thin. 

2o7. You may have noticed the flushed face which some peo- 
ple have after drinking. This is because the alcohol drives the 
blood into the blood-vessels of the skin and this becomes warm ; 
but it takes blood from other parts which are more important, 
and these suffer. 

238. The arteries of the confirmed drunkard may become so 
changed as to be brittle. When this change takes place in the 
arteries of the brain they are liable to rupture. This is called 
apoplexy and it often causes the person to fall down dead. Of 
course apoplexy may occur in persons who are not drunkards, 
but it does occur often in drunkards. 

239. Effects of Tobacco upon the Heart and the Cir- 
culation. — The use of tobacco very often affects the heart and 
causes it to throb so that the person feels it and is very much 
annoyed by it. This is called palpitation of the heart. It often 
causes the heart to beat too quickly and then too slowly ; some- 
times too strongly and then too weakly. All these effects are 
so common that such an irregular heart due to tobacco is recog- 
nized by doctors as tobacco heart. Of course, the circulation 
cannot be carried on properly if the heart acts so irregularly. 

THE LYMPHATICS. 

240. Besides the blood-vessels there are other small tubes, 
in which there flows a colorless fluid, looking like water, which 
is called lymph, and these tubes are therefore called lymphatics. 
They are shown in Fig. 62. They differ from the blood-vessels 
in not containing blood ; another difference is that all the lym- 
phatics run toward the heart. 

241. The lymphatics begin by the very smallest tubes, as 
small or smaller than the very finest capillaries. They then 
join together and form larger vessels, and finally they form two 



118 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

large tubes which open into the large veins in the neck (Fig. 
62). 

242. The lymphatics help the veins in returning the used-up 
fluids of the tissues to the heart. We have already learnt that 




Ftg. 62. — The Lymphatics and Lacteals. 

fresh, bright blood is brought to the tissues by the arteries, 
and that it circulates through the capillaries of the tissues. 
After the tissues have removed the nutritious portions, the 
used-up fluid is returned to the heart, partly by the veins and 
partly by the lymphatics. 

213. In studying digestion we found that there are certain 



THE BLOOD AM) THE CIRCULATION. 119 

vessels in the abdomen which collect the nutritious juices from 
the stomach and intestines and convey them to the blood. 
Those are called lacteal*, and they are merely a part of the 
lymphatics. 

SYNOPSIS. 

The Blood : 

1. Importance — * Life's fluid ; ' death when one-third is lost. 

2. Appearance — Thin, watery fluid ; red color, bright or dark. 

3. Composition : 

(1.) Globules : 

a. Eed — Flat, edge thicker than centre, circular in 
man and many animals ; oval and spot in centre in 
birds, reptiles, and fishes ; serve to carry the oxygen 
to the tissues ; very numerous. 

b. White — Larger, dotted ; much less numerous. 
(2). Plasma — The fluid of the blood serves to carry the 

poisonous carbonic acid gas from the tissues to the lungs. 

4. Difference in Arteries and Veins : 

(1.) In arteries — Bright red ; contains more oxygen and 
less carbonic acid gas ; cooler ; purer. 

(2.) In veins — Dark red ; contains less oxygen and more 
carbonic acid gas ; warmer ; more impure. 

5. Clotting : 

(1.) Occurrence — When removed from or change in the 
blood-vessels. 

(2.) Products — Clot and serum. 
(3.) Value — Serves to stop bleeding. 
The Heart : 

1. Situation — Between the lungs, behind the breast-bone. 

2. Form — Cone-shaped, pointed end downward ; hollow. 

3. Covering — Sac called the pericardium. 

4. Structure — Muscle-tissue ; a horizontal and a vertical 
groove divides it into two upper and two lower portions, a left 
and a right half. 

5. Cavities — Four: right auricle, right ventricle, left auricle, 
left ventricle. 

G. Function — To pump the blood into the lungs and all parts 
of the body through the arteries. 



120 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

7. Frequency of Beats — In adults, about seventy times per 
minute ; id children, more ; in the aged, less ; in fevers, more. 

8. Valves — To separate the different cavities, when necessary, 
and to prevent the return of blood pumped into the aorta. 

The Circulation — discovered by Harvey in 1618 : 

1. From right auricle to 

2. Eight ventricle, then through pulmonary artery to 

3. Lungs ; here the blood meets the air and is purified, tak- 
ing up oxygen and losing the poisonous carbonic acid gas. 
From the lungs it returns to 

4. Left auricle, then to 

5. Left ventricle ; then it is forced into 

6. The aorta, and then through the branches of this into 

7. The arteries, carrying it to different parts of the body ; 
from these it passes into 

8. The capillaries, which join to form 

9. Veins, and these gradually grow larger, and finally empty 
into a very large one which enters the right auricle of the 
heart. 

10. Bapidity — It takes about half a minute for the blood to 
pass from the heart through the lungs and the system back to 
the heart again. 

The Arteries : 

1. Function — To carry pure, bright blood to the tissues. 

2. Origin — From the aorta, which springs from the heart. 

3. Branches — Constantly become smaller. 

4. Pulse — Owing to the contraction of the heart. 

5. Direction of Flow — From the heart to the tissues. 
The Veins : 

1. Function — To carry impure, dark blood from the tissues 
to the heart. 

2. Origin — From the capillaries, smaller ones gradually unit- 
ing to form larger ones. 

3. Branches — Gradually becoming larger. 

4. No pulse. 

5. Direction of Flow — from the tissues toward the heart. 

6. Valves — To aid the flow of the blood toward the heart. 
The Capillaries : 

1. Connect arteries and veins. 



THE BLOOD AND THE CIRCULATION. 121 

2. Allow the tissues to abstract oxygen and nutritions mat- 
ters and to add carbonic acid k ;is and nsed-np fluids. 

3, Very small, can only be seen by microscope. 
Accidents to and Care of Circulation : 

1. Fainting— Due to scarcity of blood in brain ; layperson 
horizontal, with head low; plenty of air; rub extremities toward 
the trunk. 

2. Bleeding : 

a. If slight will stop by itself, or after use of court- 
plaster. 

b. If severe, press upon the injured part just above the 
cut, or tie something around it here. 

3. Good Circulation necessary to good health. 

4. Necessity of proper exercise to keep up a good circulation. 

5. Effects of Alcohol upon the Heart and Circulation : 

a. Enlarges heart. 

b. Weakens it. 

c. Makes heart fatty. 

d. Flushed face. 

e. Changes arteries. 

/. Apoplexy, bursting of one of arteries of brain. 

6. Effects of Tobacco upon the Heart and Circulation : 

a. Causes heart to beat too rapidly or too slowly. 

b. Causes heart to beat too weakly or too strongly. 

c. Causes heart to beat irregularly. 
The Lymphatics : 

1. Description — Small tubes containing a colorless fluid called 
"lymph." 

2. Differ from blood-vessels in not containing blood, and in 
that they all run toward the heart. 

3. Begin by very smallest tubes, which by joining together 
form larger ones. 

4. End by two large tubes, which empty into the large veins 
of the neck. 

5. Function, to help the veins in returning the used-up fluids 
of the tissues to the heart, and also to convey nutritious fluids 
from the intestines to the blood-vessels by means of the 

6. Lacteals — A part of the lymphatics, 



122 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



QUESTIONS. 

1. What is meant by the words ' life's fluid ? ' 2. "What happens 
if the body loses a large amount of blood ? 3. What does blood look 
like ? 4. Why does blood look red ? 5. What difference is there in 
the appearance of the blood in arteries and of that in veins ? 6. Of 
what two parts is blood composed ? 7. Are the blood-globules very 
abundant ? 8. What is a microscope ? 9. W T hat is it used for ? 10. 
What do you see when you look at a drop of blood under the micro- 
scope ? 11. Are a:iy of the blood-globules white ? 12. What is the 
color of the blood of other animals than man ? 13. How do the 
red blood-globules in birds and fishes differ from those of human 
blood? 14. What is the use of the red blood-globules? 15. Of 
what gases is the air made up principally ? 16. Which is the more 
useful gas ? 17. What happens to the air when we take it into our 
lungs? 18. What part of the blood takes oxygen from the air? 19. 
What do the red blood-globules do with this oxygen ? 20. What do 
the tissues do with it ? 21. Of what use is the fluid part of the 
blood? 22. What is carbonic acid gas? 23. Is it harmless or poi- 
sonous ? 24. Where is it sometimes found outside of the body ? 25. 
How can we tell that no poisonous gas exists in cellars or at the bot- 
tom of old wells ? 26. What part of the blood takes up this poison- 
ous gas from the tissues ? 27. What does the blood do with this 
poisonous gas ? 28. What becomes of this poisonous gas in the 
lungs ? 29. What is the difference in color, heat, and purity of the 
blood in veins and of that in arteries ? 30. What happens if blood 
is taken from the blood-vessels and allowed to stand in the air? 31. 
What is this thickening called ? 32. What do we see when we ex- 
amine clotted blood under the microscope ? 33. Of what use is this 
clotting of the blood ? 34. What would happen when we cut our- 
selves if the blood did not clot ? 35. What is the best way of seeing 
the blood in motion ? 36. What do we see when we examine the 
circulation of the blood through the thin part of the frog's foot ? 
37. What is the most important organ in the body ? 38. What is the 
shape of the heart ? 39. What surrounds the heart ? 40. About how 
long is the heart ? 41. Of what kind of tissue are the walls of the 
heart formed? 42.* Where is the heart ? 43. Where can you feel the 
heart beat ? 44. If you put your ear over this spot,what do you hear ? 



THE BLOOD AND THE CIRCULATION. L23 

i- Is the heart solid or hollow? ir>. Eow many spaces are there in 
the heart? 47. How is the hearl divided? 48. Bow are the sides 

of the heart divided ? -19. Whal are the upper spaces called? 50. 
What are the lower spaces called? 51. Which are the larger? 52. 
What is the use of the heart ? 53. What does the heart do when it 
heats? 54. How often does the heart of a grown man beat in a min- 
ute ? ^)o. How often does the heart of a child beat per minute ? 
56. How often does the heart of an old man beat per minute ? 57. 
How does the heart beat when we have fever? 58. Describe the 
course which the blood takes. 59. Where does the blood pass to 
from the right side of the heart ? 60. Where from the lungs ? 61. 
Where from the left side of the heart ? 62. Where from the arteries? 
63. How is the blood returned to the heart from the different parts 
of the body ? 64. Who discovered the circulation of the blood and 
when ? 65. How does the blood get from the right side of the heart 
into the lungs ? 66. After the large artery carries it to the lung, 
where does it pass to ? 67. What is a capillary ? 68. What hap- 
pens to the blood when it is passing through the capillaries of the 
lung ? 69. How does it change its appearance while passing through 
the capillaries of the lungs? 70. Where does the blood pass after 
it has been purified by the lungs ? 71. W T here does the purified 
blood pass to after it reaches the heart ? 72. What are the valves of 
the heart ? 73. What is their use ? 74. What three kinds of blood- 
vessels are there ? 75. What is an artery ? 76. What is a vein ? 
77. What is a capillary? 78. Do arteries branch? 79. What is 
meant by " the pulse ? " 80. How can we feel the pulse ? 81. How 
is the pulse produced? 82. Where do we usually take the pulse, and 
why ? 83. What sets of blood-vessels are connected by the capil- 
laries ? 84. What change takes place in the blood while it is pass- 
ing through the capillaries? 85. What differences are there between 
the vein and the artery? 86. What have the veins which the arteries 
do not have? 87. Of w 7 hat use are these valves? 88. How long 
does it take the blood to travel through the entire body? 89. What 
is fainting? 90. What should you do when a person has fainted ? 
91. Why should the head be low? 92. What should we do for 
slight bleeding ? 93. What should we do for serious bleeding which 
will not stop ? 94. What is apt to result if our circulation is slug- 
gish ? 95. What effect has exercise upon the circulation ? 96. What 
effect has too much or too violent exercise ? 97. What effect has 



124 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

alcohol on the heart ? 98. What effect has alcohol on the arteries ? 
99. What is apoplexy? 100. What effect has tobacco upon the heart? 
101. What other set of tubes is there in the body besides the arte- 
ries ? 102. What are the lymphatics? 103. Of what use are the 
lymphatics ? 104. What is that portion of the lymphatics which we 
find in the abdomen called? 105. Into what do the lymphatics 
finally empty ? 



CHAPTER VIII. 
THE ORGANS OF VOICE AND BKEATHING. 

244. Another name for breathing is respiring, and hence the 
act of breathing is called respiration. When air is taken into 
the lungs we breathe in or mspire ; when the air passes out 
again, we breathe out or Exspira 

245. Course of the Inspired Air. — When we inspire, 
the air first passes through the nose, then into the throat, next 
into the sound-producing organ in the neck, the larynx, then 
it passes through a tube running down the front of the neck, 
called the trachea or windpipe, which leads to the lungs. 

246. Each one of these parts will require special study. The 
nose w T ill be left until the study of the sense of smell is taken 
up. The throat has already been discussed in the chapter on 
digestion (Chapter VI.). 

THE ORGAN OF VOICE-THE LARYNX. 

247. The organ which produces sound is called the larynx. 

248. Form and Situation of the Larynx.— The larynx is 
a triangular box (Figs. 63 and 69) the walls of which are formed 
of gristle, or cartilage. It is placed at the upper and front part 
of the neck, and can readily be felt as a hard prominence just 
below the chin. 

249. Parts of the Larynx. — The larynx is formed of sev- 
eral pieces of cartilage joined together. The principal part is 
formed by a large triangular piece which is prominent and 
pointed in front, and can be felt beneath the skin. This 



126 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



pointed portion is called Adam's apple, and is larger in men 
than in women, and in some persons it stands out very much. 




Fig. 63.— The Larynx, the Trachea or Windpipe, and the Bronchi. 



Just above this triangular cartilage of the larynx, and covering 
up its upper opening somewhat, is another piece of cartilage, 



THE ORGANS OF VOICE AM) BREATHING. 127 

called the epiglottis. Below the triangular cartilage is a circa* 

lar piece of cartilage which resembles a seal-ring in shape. 
These three pieces of cartilage, the triangular, the circular, and 
the epiglottis, form the main part of the larynx, though there 
are a few smaller pieces. 

250. Epiglottis. — This is the name given to the piece of 
cartilage, shaped like a leaf, which covers over the top of the 
larynx when we swallow. Usually it stands up straight, but in 
swallowing it is pressed down over the top of the larynx, and 
then the food slides over it into the gullet. If it be remem- 
bered that the larynx is placed in front, and that the food must 
pass across it (Fig. 67), it will be seen how important such an 
arrangement is ; but as will soon be explained, there is an- 
other way in which the food is prevented from going into the 
larynx and windpipe. 

251. The Vocal Cords. — If we look into the larynx, we 
shall find that there is a shelf projecting on each side (Figs. 64, 
65, and 66) and that these two shelves can be moved ; some- 
times they move toward the middle and meet each other, at 
other times they separate, and then there is a large space be- 
tween them. These are called the vocal cords, because they 
produce the voice-sounds by their motion. 

252. Protecting the Windpipe.— The vocal cords are 
found at the upper part of the larynx ; when they come to- 
gether tightly., they close the larynx completely, so that noth- 
ing can pass into it. This is what they do whenever any food 
or solid body tries to get into the larynx or windpipe. It will 
be seen how necessary this is, for otherwise we should always be 
in danger of being choked. Sometimes the food is swallowed 
unexpectedly, and the vocal cords forget to close ; then we say 
the food has gone down the icrong ivay. This is very distress- 
ing, causing coughing until the piece of food is dislodged. In 
speaking or laughing during meals, care should be taken that 
the mouth be not full, otherwise this accident may happen. 

253. The Vocal Cords in Breathing. — When we inspii *e y 



128 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



the vocal cords separate widely, so as to let the air pass readily 
into the windpipe and into our lungs (Fig. 64). When the air 
passes out {expiration), the vocal cords again come together, but 







Fig. 66. 



Figs. 64, 65, and 66. — Showing the Position of the Vocal Cords in Breathing and in Using 
the Voice. In Fig. 64 the cords are widely separated, as they are in inspiration; in Fig. 
65 the cords are slightly separated, as they are in expiration; in Fig. 66 the cords are 
brought together closely, as they are when sounds are produced. 



not tightly, there being still some space left between the two 
(Fig. 65). 

254. How Sounds are Produced Previous to making 

a sound we usually take a deep breath. Then this air is blow r n 
out again, and as it passes through the larynx, between the 
vocal cords, it makes these vibrate, and through the rrpid mo- 



THE ORGANS OF VOICE A.ND BREATHING. 129 

Hon of the vocal cords, sound is produced. There are many 
differences in the quality of the human voice, being coarse in 
some, sweet in others, high in some, low in others. Then there 
are other peculiarities of the voice, by which we recognize our 
friends by hearing them speak. 

255. It depends very much upon how the vocal cords are 
placed what kind of sound is produced. If the vocal cords 
are brought closely together and are made very tight the 
sound will be high. If you could look into the larynx of a lady 
with a soprano voice, while she is singing, you would find 
the vocal cords very close together ; if, on the contrary, the 
sound is produced while the cords are further apart and less 
tense, the sound will be low, like that of a bass voice. 

256. Speaking. — Although sound is produced in the larynx, 
it is changed by other parts, principally the throat, the mouth, 
the tongue, and the lips. These change the sound so that 
words are spoken. With the vocal cords alone we could make 
sounds as in singing ; but to speak, we must change these 
sounds by means of the parts already mentioned. For in- 
stance, in pronouncing the word paper, the manner in which 
the lips come together will be noticed ; if the word law be 
pronounced, the tongue will touch the top of the mouth. 

THE TRACHEA, OR WINDPIPE. 

257. Situation and Form. — If the finger be passed along 
the front of the neck, from the larynx downward, a hard tube 
can be felt and traced down to the top of the breast-bone ; and 
then it can no longer be felt, for it passes behind this bone into 
the chest. This hollow tube is called the ivindpipe, or trachea 
(Fig. 63). It serves to conduct the air to the lungs, after it has 
passed through the nostrils, nasal passages, throat, and larynx. 

258. The Air-passage and the Food-passage. — The 
existence of another tube running along the middle of the neck 
— the oesophagus or gullet — has already been mentioned in the 



130 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



chapter on Digestion. Its purpose is to carry the food to 
the stomach after it has been chewed in the month and 

swallowed, The windpipe is 
placed in front of the gullet 
(Fig. 67) ; and both of these 
tubes pass into the chest. The 
windpipe then passes to the 
lungs. The gullet passes 
through an opening in the dia- 
phragm and connects with the 
stomach in the abdomen. 

259. Rings of the Wind- 
pipe. — T li e w i n d pipe is 
formed of a large number of 
rings of gristle, joined together 
by a thin membrane (Fig. 63). 

260. Branching of the 
Windpipe. — After having 
passed into the chest for a 
short distance, the windpipe 

divides into two smaller tubes (Figs. 63 and 69). These 
branches are called the bronchi, there being two of them, a 
right and a left bronchus. Each carries the air from the wind- 
pipe to the corresponding lung, the right bronchial tube natu- 
rally passing to the right lung, and the left to the other 
side. 

THE LUNGS. 




Fig. 07.— The Air-passage and th^ Food- 
passage. The heavy line indicates the course 
of the food through mouth and gullet ; the 
dotted line shows the course of air through 
nostril into pharynx, and then into the lar- 
ynx and trachea, which are placed in front of 
the gullet. 



261, The lung are the organs with which we breathe. There 
is (Figs. 68 and 69) a right lung and a left lung. Between these 
two the heart is placed (Fig. 68). The lungs and the heart fill 
up the entire space in the chest. 

262. Shape of the Lungs.— Each lung is shaped some- 
what like a cone, with the apex above and the base below (Fig. 



THE ORGANS OF VOICE AND BKEATHING. 



131 



69). The lungs arc very light and contain a greal deal of air, 
and float when placed on water. Even after squeezing out all 

the air we can, there will still be a considerable quantity re- 
maining in the lung. 

263. Structure of the Lungs. —If we cut into the lungs, 
we find they are formed of a large number of tubes and 




FlG. 68. — The Heart and Lungs. On each side the lungs are seen ; in the centre is the 

heart ; above are the windpipe and the large blood-vessels passing to and from the heart. 



spaces containing air. After entering the lungs, each bron- 
chus divides again and again (Fig. 69), each branch, known 
as a bronchial tube, becoming smaller, until finally the 
branches of each bronchial tube have become so small that 
they can no longer be seen without the microscope (Fig. 
70, a). 



132 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 




Fig. 



69. — The Larynx, Trachea, Right and Left Bronchus, and the Lungs. The latter have 
been cut open to show the method of division and subdivision of the bronchi. 



264. The Air-Ve si c I e s.— The 

smallest branch of a bronchus (Fig. 
70, a) swells so as to end in a lit- 
tle bag containing air, called an air- 
space (Fig. 70, 6).. The walls of these 
air-spaces are again subdivided so 
as to form a large number of small 
sacs called air-vesicles. The walls of 
these air-vesicles are very thin and 
contain many blood-vessels. From 
this description it w T ill be seen that 
the lungs really consist of a great 
collection of small sacs or spaces filled 
with air. 




Fig. 70. — The Air-vesicles. «, 
The smallest branch of the sub- 
divisions of a bronchial tube : b, 
the dilated pas -age or air-space , 
into which this expands ; c, the 
smallest spaces, air-vesicles. 



THE ORGANS OF VOICE AN:> BREATHING. 133 

266. The Pleura. — Upon their surface the lungs are cov- 
ered with a sheet of smooth membrane, called the pleura, which 

also lines the inner surface of the chest. This smooth mem- 
brane allows the lungs to rub against the wall of the chest 
without pain or friction. The pleura resembles the peritoneum 
of the abdomen and serves a similar purpose. 

266. Breathing is Involuntary.— Like the beating of the 
heart, breathing takes place without the use of our will-power. 
It continues whether we are awake or asleep, and even when 
we are unconscious. It is possible to breathe faster than 
usual for a little while, or to hold the breath for a very short 
period, but these are merely temporary changes which cannot 
be continued, for breathing is not under the control of the 
will. 

267. Movements of the Chest in Breathing. — In in- 
spiration air is taken in which passes to the lungs and expands 
them. Watching the chest w 7 hile this is taking place, it is 
found that the ribs rise and that the chest becomes wider. In 
expiration, the air is allowed to pass from the lungs, these be- 
coming smaller ; the ribs fall and the chest again becomes nar- 
rower. When the lungs are filled with air, they press down 
the diaphragm ; and this then crowds down upon the organs 
contained in the abdomen, which are pushed out; hence the 
bulging of the abdomen in inspiration. 

268. Mouth-breathing. — In breathing, the air should be 
drawn through the nose and not through the mouth. Many 
children breathe through the mouth — an injurious practice 
which results in keeping the mouth open constantly, giving 
rise to a stupid expression of the face and allowing the air to 
reach the lungs in an improperly warmed and impure condi- 
tion. 

269. Frequency of Breathing. — Usually we breathe about 
twenty times a minute. Young children breathe oftener. After 
exercise, we breathe oftener than twenty times per minute. 
When asleep, we breathe less frequently. 



134: ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AXD HYGIEXE. 

270. Changes which Breathing Produces in the 
Blood and Tissues. — It has already been stated that the ob- 
ject of breathing is to purify the blood. How this is done has 
also been explained. But the subject is so important that it 
will be well to review it briefly. The air passes into the air- 
spaces of the lungs. In the thin walls of these air-spaces there 
is a large number of very small capillaries. In this way the 
blood in the capillaries is separated from the air by very thin 
tissue only, and gases can pass from the air to the blood and 
from the blood to the air very readily. In breathing, the blood 
takes oxygen from the air, and in exchange it gives it the poi- 
sonous carbonic acid gas, moisture, warmth, and a second poi- 
sonous gas which will be described shortly. 

271. Changes Produced in the Air by Breathing.— 
While the air passes through the lungs it has oxygen taken from 
it — this is the first change. The second change is that it re- 
ceives some of the poisonous carbonic acid gas from the blood. 
Third, it takes moisture from the blood. If you breathe upon 
the window-pane you can easily see this moisture ; and in 
winter when it is cold you can notice the moisture in the air 
which we expire, because it becomes visible as soon as it meets 
the cold air. Fourth, the air which we exhale is warmer than 
that which we inhale, because it has taken some of the heat 
from the blood. 

272. Finally, the air takes from the blood a certain poisonous 
gas which has a disagreeable smell. The exact nature of this 
unnamed o-as is not known, but it is thought to be a mixture of 
many gases. It is known by its smell. If you come from the 
open air into a crowded room you find it disagreeable to breathe 
for a little while, because the air does not seem fresh ; and you 
call it close, and if it is very bad you say it is foul. It is this 
bad-smelling gas which gives this odor. It is fortunate that 
this exceedingly poisonous gas has a bad smell, for otherwise 
w r e should not know that the air was no longer fresh and needed 
changing. If we stay in such a close room for a little while, we 



THE ORGANS OF VOICE AM) BREATHING. 135 

no longer notice the smell, because we have become accustomed 

to it. 

273. Effects of Impure Air. — Much time spent in close 
rooms produces a sleepy, dull, and tired feeling ; the complexion 
suffers and we no longer look so bright as we did. The blood 
cannot be purified in such bad air. In this way all the tissues 
of the body become pale and weak, and the organs no longer 
work as they should. 

274. Purification of the Air. — If the air is constantly 
being made impure by our breathing, it would seem quite 
natural to ask : Why is it that the air does not become so 
impure after a while that we cannot live in it ? This would re- 
sult if God had not provided two great purifiers — sunlight and 
plants. These are the great natural purifiers and change the bad 
air, making it as good as it was before. You have no doubt 
noticed how stale it smells in all dark places, such as cellars. 
This is because the sunlight never enters to purify the air. 

275. The way in which the prtants purify the air is still more 
wonderful ; they make use of the poisonous gases as their 

food. Carbonic acid gas is necessary for plants to live and 
grow. Let us stop to consider how plants live and grow : 

276. How Plants Live and Grow. — Plants breathe in 
poisonous gases from the air and breathe out pure oxygen. Be- 
sides the poisonous carbonic acid gas which they take from the 
air, they also absorb moisture and salts from the ground. 
From all these plants form their stems and leaves, and they 
grow until we could hardly believe that the big tree has grown 
from a small plant with no other nourishment than what has 
just been mentioned. In order to do this, plants must have 
sunlight— they will not grow in the dark. So that what is poi- 
sonous to the animal is food to the plant. And in this way pure 
oxygen is returned to the air and the poisonous carbonic acid 
gas is gotten rid of. 

277. Ventilation. — Ventilation means allowing impure air 
to escape from our rooms and letting fresh air takes its place. 



136 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, A1STD HYGIENE. 

This is very necessary. We have already spoken of the effects 
of impure air. If a man were locked in a room and everything 
were tightly closed so that no fresh air could enter, no matter 
how much food and drink he had, he w r ould soon die, because 
his breathing would be constantly making the air of the room 
more and more impure, and finally he would die from want of 
pure air. 

278. In the summer it is quite easy to ventilate our rooms, 
for all we need to do is to open the windows wide and the 
fresh air will stream in and the impure air escape at the same 
time. But in the winter it is more difficult ; for the outside 
air, while it is fresh and pure, is also cold ; and if we opened 
the windows very wide w 7 e should feel cold. It is fortunate 
that our windows are not, as a rule, very tight fitting ; hence 
more or less air gets in through the cracks. But it is well to 
draw down the window a little from the top, for the foul air is 
lighter than the fresh air and is always found near the ceiling 
of the room. 

279. Another very good way of ventilating a room is to push 
up the lower window about six inches and to fasten a piece of 
board in front of the open space which you make in this way. 
Or instead of a board a piece of canvas will be better yet, and 
it can be made to look nice by painting or embroidering on it. 
In this way the fresh air will come in through the canvas be- 
low, and the foul air will go out in the opening between the 
upper and lower portions of the window, as is show in Fig. 
71. Certain methods of heating rooms are also valuable as 
means of ventilating them. The open-grate fire is one of the 
best means of supplying warmth, because it furnishes such 
a ready escape for the impure air, which passes up the chim- 
ney. 

280. In ventilating rooms it must be remembered that there 
should be no draughts of air upon the persons in the room, for 
otherwise they will catch cold. And also that a room cannot 
be healthy if no sunlight ever enters it. In some of our houses 



THE ORGANS OF VOICE AND BREATHING. 137 

nowadays, and especially in what we call flats, many of the 
rooms are dark and never have any sunlight, and must be 




Fig. 71. — A Ready Method of Ventilating Rooms. The arrows above indicate the escape 
of the impure air ; those below, the entrance of fresh air. 



unhealthy, as the air in them can never be so pure as in light 
rooms. 



138 



AJSTATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, A]S r D HYGIENE. 



281. Effect of Tight Clothing upon Breathing.— 

Tight clothing presses upon the chest, and does not allow the 
lungs to expand as they should ; in this way not enough air 
can enter the lungs and the blood suffers, and from this also 
the rest of the body. Besides, if children dress so tightly 
about the chest, it will keep the chest from getting its proper 




Fig. 72. — A Deformed Chest, the Result of too Tight Clothing. Compare with the natural chest 
shown in Chapter II., Fig. 18. The dotted line indicates the position of the diaphragm. 



shape and size (Fig. 72). We should try to have as broad a 
chest as possible, and should always remember to throw our 
shoulders back, and to sit and stand erect. 

282. Effects of Tobacco Smoke upon the Lungs and 
Throat- — Tobacco smoke is irritating to the lungs of many 
people, and makes them cough. The throat also suffers, and 
becomes red and sore. Such a throat is called by the doctor 
smoker's sore throat. 



THE ORGANS OF VOICE AM) BREATHING. L39 



SYNOPSIS. 

The Organ of Voice — The Larynx : 

1. Form — Triangular box. 

2. Structure — Walls formed of cartilage. 

3. Situation — Upper and front part of neck, just below chin 

4. Function : 

a. Passage of air to windpipe and lungs. 

b. Production of sound. 

5. Parts : 

«. Triangular piece (including Adam's apple). 

b. Circular piece. 

c. Epiglottis. 

d. Vocal Cords : 

(1.) Protect windpipe. 
(2.) Move in respiration. 

(3. ) Produce the voice-sounds by their vibration 
The Organs of Breathing : 

1. Larynx. 

2. Trachea or windpipe. 

3. Eight and left bronchus. 

4. Lungs. 
Trachea : 

1. Situation — Along front of neck in middle line. 

2. Form— Cylindrical tube. 

3. Structure — Eings of cartilage joined together by mem- 
brane. 

4. Function— Conveys air from larynx to lungs. 

5. Branches — Eight and left bronchus. 
The Lungs : 

1. Situation — The cavity of the chest, on each side of the 
heart. 

2. Form — Cone-shaped, with apex above. 

3. Function — To purify the blood by allowing it to be 
brought in close contact with the air. 

4. Divisions — Eight and left lung. 

5. Structure : 

a. Bronchial tubes. 



140 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

b. Air-spaces. 

c. Air-vesicles. 

d. Pleura, covering outside. 
Breathing : 

1. Is involuntary. 

2. Accompanied by certain movements of chest : 

a. In inspiration, chest becomes wider and ribs rise. 

b. In expiration, chest becomes narrower and ribs fall. 

3. Frequency — About twenty per minute ; more frequently 
in young children and after exercise. 

4. Changes produced in blood : 

a. Gains oxygen and becomes brighter. 

b. Loses carbonic acid gas, other poisonous gas, moist- 
ure, and heat. 

5. Changes produced in air : 

a. Loses oxygen. 

b. Has added : 

(1.) Carbonic acid gas. 

(2.) Poisonous ill-smelling gas. 

(3.) Moisture. 

(4.) Warmth. 

6. Effects of impure air : 

a. Poor health. 

b. Sleepy, dull, and tired feeling. 

7. Effects of bad habits : 

a. Mouth-breathing ; stupid expression ; air improperly 
warmed and cleansed. 

b. Tight clothing about chest ; deformed chest. 

c. Tobacco smoke ; cough ; sore throat. 
Purification of the air : 

1. Natural : 

a. Sunlight. 

b. Plants, by using the carbonic acid gas as part of their 
food and giving back oxygen to the air. 

2. Artificial — affecting dwellings ; ventilation. 



THE ORGANS OF VOICE AM) BREATHING. 141 



QUESTIONS. 

1. What is the meaning of the word respiration? 2. What is 
the definition of to inspire? 3. What is the definition of to ex- 
pire ? 4. Through what different parts does the air pass before 
it reaches the lungs ? 5. What is the organ of voice called ? G. 
Where is the larynx ? 7. What is its shape ? 8. How is it formed ? 
9. What is Adam's apple? 10. What is the epiglottis? 11. Of 
what use is the epiglottis? 12. What are the vocal cords? 13. 
How do they protect the larynx and the windpipe ? 14. How do we 
prevent food from going the wrong way ? 15. How do the vocal 
cords move in breathing? 16. How is sound produced? 17. W 7 hat 
makes the difference in the kind of sound produced ? 18. In what 
position are the vocal cords in singing high notes ? 19. In what 
position in breathing ? 20. What other parts change the sound in 
speaking? 21. Could we speak with the larynx alone? 22. How 
can you prove that the lips and the tongue take part in speaking ? 
23. Where is the windpipe ? 24. What is another name for it ? 
25. Where does it lead to ? 26. What tube runs along together 
with the windpipe ? 27. Which is in front, the windpipe or the gul- 
let? 28. How is the windpipe formed? 29. Wlieje does it end 
and wdiat becomes of it? 30. What are the bronchi, and where do 
they go to ? 31. What are the lungs ? 32. Where are they ? 33. 
How many are there ? 34. What is the shape of each ? 35. Are 
they light or heavy ? 36. Why are they so light ? 37. How are the 
lungs formed ? 38. W 7 hat are the air-spaces ? 39. What are the 
lungs covered by on the outside ? 40. Do we use our w 7 ill-power in 
breathing? 41. Can we stop breathing when we want to? 42. 
How do we breathe ? 43. What change do we see when we look at 
the chest while we are breathing? 44. W 7 hat change if we look at 
the abdomen ? 45. Should w T e breathe through the mouth or 
through the nose ? 46. How often per minute do we usually 
breathe ? 47. What difference is there when we exercise ? 48. 
When we are asleep ? 49. What changes does breathing produce 
in the blood ? 50. Where and how do these changes occur ? 51. 
What changes are produced in the air by breathing ? 52. What is 
taken from the air ? 53. W T hat is given to it ? 54. What poisonous 
gases are added to the air by breathing ? 55. What makes rooms 



142 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

smell close and foul when many people are in them and they are 
not properly aired ? 56. What are the effects of impure air ? 57. 
How is the air purified ? 58. What are the two great purifiers of 
nature? 59. How do plants purify the air? 60. What does the 
food of plants consist of? 61. Can plants thrive without sunlight? 
62. What is ventilation? 63. Could we live in a room if the air 
were not changed? 64. What is a good method of ventilating 
rooms in winter ? 65. In what part of the room do we find most 
of the impure air ? 66. Why are cold draughts undesirable ? 67. 
What effect has sunlight upon the air of a room ? 68. Can a room 
into which the sun never shines be healthy ? 69. What effect has 
tight clothing around the chest upon breathing ? 70. What effect 
has tobacco-smoke upon the lungs? 71. What effect has it upon 
the throat ? 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE HEAT OF THE BODY. 

283. Have you ever stopped to think how it is that on the 
coldest day in winter our bodies remain warm, even though 
we go out into the open air ? It may be necessary to have a 
big fire in our rooms, but still our blood remains just as warm 
as in summer. You may say it is due to the clothing we wear, 
but this is not so. For if you took a cold stone and wrapped 
ever so much clothing around it, you could not warm it. Our 
clothes keep in the heat of the body, but they cannot produce 
any. 

284. The Body may be Compared to a Stove.— We 
can compare the human body to a stove, for there is some re- 
semblance in the manner in which heat is produced. The food 
which we take in by the stomach and the air which we breathe 
combine to form the fuel, just as coal and wood form the fuel 
in the stove. This human fuel is then received by the organs 
of digestion, and changed and liquefied, so that it can be used 
by the various parts of the body. The blood distributes the 
fluid nourishment to the tissues of the body, and also serves 
to relieve these tissues of the poisonous carbonic acid gas, and 
to supply them with oxygen which it has absorbed while pass- 
ing through the lungs. As the tissues of the body are used up 
in performing the w r ork required of them, they are constantly 
being built up again by the nourishing materials which the 
blood conveys to them. 

285. Combustion. — This process of building up the various 
parts of the body by the nutritious portions of the food, changed 



144 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

to a fluid form by the organs of digestion, is followed by a con- 
sumption, or using-up, of the tissues when we use them in any 
way — in other words, when we work. This is called combustion, 
and means a slow burning, and it is accomplished by means of 
the oxygen which the blood carries to the tissues. 

286. What Results from the Burning of Fuel— Work. 
— If we recall the resemblance of the human body to a stove, 
and the similarity of our food to the fuel, it will be instructive 
to ascertain what becomes of the fuel consumed in an ordinary 
fire. Take a locomotive, for example. Its fuel consists of coal, 
which, in burning, combines with the oxygen of the air, thus 
producing combustion. As a result of this combustion, heat 
is produced, which changes the water in the boiler into steam. 
The steam turns the wheels of the locomotive and furnishes 
the power which draws the cars, and enables us to travel many 
hundred miles a day. 

287. Another Result of the Burning of Fuel— Ref- 
use. — As has just been explained, one result of the burning 
of fuel in the locomotive is steam, this combustion taking place 
with the aid of the air. If there is no access of air there can 
be no combustion. Besides steam there is also produced refuse 
— ashes and smoke. These are of no value, and hence they are 
correctly called refuse, and allowed to escape, the smoke passing 
into the air and the ashes thrown aw T ay. What was w r anted from 
the fuel was the steam ; this does the work, whether it moves 
a locomotive or a steamboat, or lifts an elevator, or pumps 
up water ; and all these are merely examples of different kinds 
of work. Fuel, then, consumed with the aid of the oxygen of 
the air, has resulted in work, which is of the greatest value to 
us ; and in smoke and ashes, which are refuse, and which we 
throw away. 

288. What Results from the Combustion of Our 
Food. — If, now, we examine what becomes of the food which 
is consumed by our tissues, both that which we take in by the 
stomach, and the oxygen which the blood takes from the air, 



THE HEAT OF THE BODY, 145 

we find that the same things are produced, namely, heat and 
work, which are of value to us, and refuse materials, which are 

of no use to us, and which are removed from the body. It has 
already been explained how the food is changed and then car- 
ried to the tissues by the blood, and also how the oxygen of 
the air is carried to the tissues. Both of these are fuel, and 
they unite with the tissues ; the oxygen unites with the tissues 
and consumes them, and then the new food builds them up 
again. It may be asked, Why must the tissues constantly 
be used up and then restored ? The answer is, Because we are 
constantly doing work and require heat ; and to get these, the 
tissues must be consumed in our body, just as w^ood and coal 
are in the locomotive. 

289. Casting off the Refuse Materials from the Body. 
— The refuse materials, which are no longer of any use, and 
which would be harmful if retained in the body, may be com- 
pared to the smoke and the ashes which escape from the loco- 
motive. The organs which serve to remove them from the 
body are the skin, the lungs, the kidneys, and the intestines. 
The skin removes certain poisonous gases, and also certain 
other materials in the perspiration — hence the necessity of 
keeping the pores open. The lungs, as has just been ex- 
plained, remove carbonic acid gas and other poisonous gases 
in the expired air. The kidneys remove impurities in liquid 
form. The intestines remove the solid refuse. 

290. Food and Oxygen Produce Heat and Work. — 
It does not require much study to appreciate how much work 
the body is constantly doing. Even when asleep the body is 
doing work. The heart is working faithfully, beating to sup- 
ply all parts of the body with life's fluid, the blood ; the chest 
is rising and falling and the lungs expanding to take in air ; 
and there are many other examples of work, of constant work. 
When a man is deep in thought, it might be considered that 
he is idle and resting, but this w T ould be incorrect. Such a 
man is working very hard with his brain, and such work is 



146 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

as tiring as working with the hands. Other examples of work 
we see around us every day — the men digging, paving the 
streets, and building the houses. When hard work is required 
more food is necessary than when persons are idle. 

291. Warm-blooded and Cold-blooded Animals.— If 
you touch a stone in the street it will be cold in winter, but 
warm in summer if the sun has been shining upon it. But 
though it may feel warm, it has no heat of its own, and is 
simply warm or cold according as the air around it is warm or 
cold. If you put it in a fire it will become hot, but if taken 
out again it becomes as cold as the bodies around it. This is 
the case with all bodies which have no life. But with animals 
it is different ; they have heat of their own, and it does not 
matter whether the air around them is cold or w r arm, their 
blood will be about the same. Animals can be divided into 
two classes. One class, the fishes, have cold blood ; you will 
remember how cold and clammy a fish feels. Fishes belong 
to the cold-blooded animals. Most animals, however, have warm 
blood, and hence are called warm-blooded animals. Most of the 
animals we see are of this class. Birds have especially warm 
blood. 

292. Heat of the Human Body.— The heat of the human 
body is about 98 degrees as measured with the thermometer. 
All of you have probably seen a thermometer. It is a long, 
hollow tube of glass, containing a silvery fluid called quicksilver. 
Heat makes the quicksilver rise, and the more heat the higher 
it rises ; so that we tell how hot anything is by the height to 
which the fluid in the thermometer rises, there being numbers 
attached to the frame of the instrument to express the heat. 
Ninety-eight degrees expresses the heat of our blood, and hence 
this is called blood-heat. On a very warm day in summer you 
may read about the thermometer having risen to blood-heat ; 
this means 98 degrees. 

293. The skin is never so warm as the blood. In winter the 
skin, especially of the hands, may be quite cold, and yet the 



THE HEAT OF THE BODY. 147 

blood-heat remains the same. On the oilier hand, our skin 
may be very warm in summer, and still the heal of the blood 
does not rise. So that the blood and the interior of the body 
ii i\v the same heat in summer as in winter, namely, 98 de- 
grees. 

294. Heat of the Body in Sickness. — When sick with 
fever, the blood becomes hotter ; and if this increase of heat is 
more than a few degrees, it is very dangerous. 

295. Regulation of the Body Heat. — In summer, when 
it is warm, there does not need to be so much heat produced in 
the body, and we naturally take less food, and wear lighter cloth- 
ing, and do not work so hard as in the cold months. In winter, 
on account of the coldness in the air, we must have an extra 
supply of body heat, which we produce by eating more, by 
wearing heavier clothing, and by doing more work. In winter 
we should take more exercise than at any other time of the 
year. Nature usually gives us a better appetite in winter than 
in summer, and we usually eat more meat than when the 
weather is warm. 

296. There is another w r ay in which we increase the warmth 
of the body in winter, and that is by wearing warmer clothing. 
But it has just been stated that clothes do not produce heat; 
then why do we wear thicker and warmer clothes in winter thau 
in summer? This statement is true, clothes do not produce heat, 
but they prevent the warmth from leaving the body too quickly. 
In winter the air is very cold, and the heat of the body would 
pass into the air very soon, to prevent which we put on warm 
clothing. 

297. Warm Clothing. — Woollen clothing is the warmest. 
In winter it is well to wear flannel next to the skin. In sum- 
mer linen clothing is the coolest. Black clothes are warmer 
than white ones because they absorb more external heat. This 
can easily be shown in the following way : If you take two 
pieces of cloth of the same kind and size, and place them on 
the snow, that under the black cloth will be melted before that 



148 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

under the white one. This is the reason for wearing dark 
clothing in winter and light colors in summer. 

298. How to Keep Warm in Winter. — In winter we de- 
pend upon exercise, additional food, and warmer clothing to 
keep us warm. And all three of these must be combined if we 
want to feel comfortable. You have seen car-drivers slapping 
their arms about on a cold day. This gives them exercise and 
makes them warm ; it makes the warm blood circulate faster, 
and this brings heat to the tissues. If you stand still on a 
wintry day the feet soon become cold. This is very unhealthy, 
and is a sign that you should exercise in order to get more 
blood back into the feet. If we go out on a cold day before 
breakfast we feel very chilly ; and everyone knows how much 
better he is able to stand the cold after having had a warm 
meal. 

299. How to Keep Cool in Summer. — In summer we 
should eat less meat and less food than in winter. Usually our 
appetite is not so good in summer as it is in winter, and natu- 
rally, therefore, we take less food, and we should wear light 
clothing. Everything we do during the warm parts of the sum- 
mer days we should do slowly and should not hurry. We should 
not walk much in the sun without being shaded. 

300. How the Body is Kept Cool in Summer. — It 
would seem difficult to prevent the body from being over- 
heated in summer when the air around us is so warm ; and you 
might wonder, too, why it is that the blood of a locomotive en- 
gineer, or of a cook, who is in front of a hot fire all day long, is 
no warmer than that of persons who can keep cool. There are 
two ways in which the bodily heat is prevented from rising 
above 98 degrees when persons must be near furnaces and 
fires or are otherwise exposed to the heat. 

301. Both methods depend upon the fact that whenever 
moisture or water leaves any surface it makes that surface cold ; 
that is, it takes some of the heat of that surface with it. In 
India, the drinking-water is cooled by placing it in porous clay 



THE HEAT OF THE BODY. 149 

Is which allow a little of the water to soak through, after 
which it passes off into the air and thus makes the rest of the 
water cool. It' you wet your hand and then hold it in the air, 
it feels cold, because the water in passing into the air takes 
some of the heat of the hand with it. 

302. In this way our blood does not get any warmer in sum 
mer than in winter. For in summer more moisture leaves the 
body than in winter. Moisture leaves the body in two ways: 
13 v the lungs and by the skin. We breathe more rapidly in 
summer than in winter, especially if it is very warm, and in 
this way, more moisture is given off to the air from the blood 
pissing through the lungs. Then again, the expired air con- 
tains more moisture in summer. 

303. Perspiration. — The moisture which passes off by the 
skin is called perspiration. This is taking place constantly 
through the pores, but in summer so much passes off that it col- 
lects in drops and is then called visible or sensible perspiration. 

304. Ice-water in Summer. — There is no objection to 
ice-water in summer if you do not drink too much, and if you 
take but a little at a time. Some people get into the habit of 
drinking ice- water constantly. This is very unhealthy and will 
make them suffer. But if it be remembered to drink it slowly 
and only a little at a time, it will not usually do any harm. 

305. Sunstroke. — When a person has been in the sun a 
long time, the heat of the blood may become so great, or the 
effect of this heat upon the nerves so serious, that it makes him 
dangerously sick ; this is called sunstroke. It is a very danger- 
ous condition. If you have to walk much in the sun, you 
should stop and go into the shade and rest as soon as you feel 
the least faint or dizzy. 

306. Effects of Cold. — If we are in the cold a long time, it 
sometimes happens that we freeze the nose, ears, toes, or fingers. 
When this occurs, the frozen part of the body becomes pale or 
purple. At first it becomes painful, but when really frozen 
it has no feeling at all. The reason these parts of the body 



150 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

freeze is because the blood does not flow in them as it should ; 
there is too little blood in them, and so there is too little heat 
to keep off the cold. When the ears or the nose begin to 
smart they are beginning to feel the effects of the cold, and we 
should rub them so as to bring the blood back. When we are 
very cold and have frozen a part of the body, we should not go 
near the fire at once ; the change of temperature would be too 
sudden and the frozen part might die. We should give the 
frozen part a thorough rubbing. 



SYNOPSIS. 

Combustion — The slow consumption of the tissues : 

a. Requires food and oxygen. 

b. Produces : 

1. Life. 

2. Growth. 

3. Work and heat. 
Refuse of the Body : 

a. Gaseous, given off by : 

1. Lungs — expiration. 

2. Skin. 

b. Liquid, given off by kidneys. 

c. Solid, given off by intestines.. 
Heat of Animals : 

a. Warm-blooded animals. 

b. Cold-blooded animals. 
Heat of the Human Body : 

1. About 98° in health in the interior. 

2. Colder on the surface of the skin, depending upon the 
warmth of the air. May be slightly warmer in summer. 

3. Higher in sickness (fever). 

4. Regulated by : 

(1.) Amount and kind of food. 
(2.) Amount and kind of clothing. 
(3.) Amount of exercise. 
(4.) Perspiration. 



THE HEAT OF THE BODY. 151 

To Keep Warm in Winter : 

1. Much clothing;, especially woollen ; flannel next to skin. 

2. Much food, especially meat. 
.'). Much exercise. 

To Keep Cool in Summer : 

1. Light clothing, especially liuen. 

2. Less food, and less meat. 

3. Less exercise. 

The Control of Bodily Heat in Summer — By increased escape of 
moisture by lungs and by skin. 

Undesirable Effects of Heat and Cold : 

1. Sunstroke. 

2. Freezing parts. 

3. Bad effects of too much ice-water. 



QUESTIONS. 

1. What effect has our clothing upon the body heat ? 2. In 
what way can the body be compared to a stove ? 3. What corre- 
sponds to the fuel of the stove ? 4. What do we call the slow burn- 
ing which takes place in the body ? 5. How does fuel do work in 
the locomotive ? 6. What results from the fuel in a locomotive be- 
sides the steam which does the work ? 7. What results from the 
combustion of our food ? 8. What does the oxygen of the air do ? 
9. Why are the tissues constantly used up and then restored ? 10. 
What gases are given off from the body? 11. What is the object of 
taking food into our stomach, and oxygen from the air into our 
blood ? 12. What do these produce ? 13. Is the body ever idle ? 
14. What work does it do even when we are asleep ? 15. Is the 
body doing any work when we think? 16. Can a hard-working man 
get along on as little food as one who is idle ? 17. Do all animals 
have the same warmth of the blood ? 18. What is meant by a cold- 
blooded animal ? 19. Give an example. 20. What is meant by a 
warm-blooded animal? 21. Give an example. 22. Have bodies 
without any life in them any heat of their own ? 23. What is the 
heat of the human body ? 24. What is a thermometer ? 25. Is our 
skin warmer or cooler than the rest of our body ? 26. What change 
is there in the heat of the body when we have fever ? 27. What do 



152 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

we do in summer so that less bodily heat shall be produced ? 28. 
Do we need more heat or less heat in winter than in summer? 
29. How do we produce more heat in winter ? 30. Do clothes pro- 
duce heat? 31. What do they do to the heat? 32. What is the 
warmest kind of clothing? 33. What is the coolest kind of cloth- 
ing ? 34. What color of cloth is the warmer, black or white ? 35. 
How can you show this ? 36. W T hat should we do to keep warm in 
winter ? 37. What should we do to keep cool in summer ? 38. How 
is the body kept cool in summer? 39. Does the blood become 
warmer if we stand in front of a fire all day ? 40. W^hat effect is 
produced when moisture passes into the air ? 41. How can you 
show this effect by an example ? 42. In what ways does moisture 
leave the body ? 43. What is perspiration? 44. How does perspira- 
tion keep the heat of the body from rising ? 45. How can you take 
ice-water in summer without harming you? 46. What is sunstroke? 
47. What should you do to avoid being sunstruck ? 48. What are 
the effects of great cold ? 49. What parts of the body are we most 
apt to freeze? 50. In what way may certain parts of the body 
freeze ? 51. How does the nose or ear feel when it is freezing? 52. 
How do they feel when they are frozen ? 53. Should we go near 
the fire immediately when we have frozen a part of the body ? 54 
What should we do ? 



CHAPTER X. 
STIMULANTS. 

307. Stimulants are agents which excite the human system or 
some -part of it. Among the most common stimulants are 
coffee, tea, and liquids containing alcohol. Many drugs act as 
stimulants ; ammonia and camphor are good examples of medi- 
cines prescribed for this purpose. 

308. Drugs as Stimulants. — A stimulant maybe useful 
in certain conditions of ill-health, when prescribed by a physician. 
Thus we are all familiar with the practice of giving certain 
medicines to strengthen weakened parts of the system ; we hear 

frequently that a "tonic" has been ordered for some invalid in 
order to invigorate the body ; in another case to increase the 
action of the organs of digestion ; and in still another, to add 
to the power of the heart when it is weak in sickness. These 
are examples of the proper use of stimulants. 

309. Water and Food as Stimulants.— A drink of cold 
ivater is probably the most common example of the use of a 
stimulant ; every one knows how a person who feels faint may 
become revived by this simple means. - Food, especially in 
liquid form, and in such a state that it can be quickly digested, 
and hence rapidly taken up by the blood, is an ideal form of 
stimulant; thus, a plate of hot soup, or gruel, or a glass of 
hot milk, acts very quickly and energetically in this direction. 

310. Tea and Coffee as Stimulants. — Tea and coffee 
are stimulants which, if taken in moderate quantity, by adults, 
are not usually harmful. They act, in the first place, by con- 
veying warmth, since they are usually taken hot ; secondly, tea- 



154 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

leaves and coffee-beans both contain a principle which has a 
strengthening effect upon the heart. Children are better off with- 
out the regular use of tea and coffee; milk and water are the 
natural drinks for them. In the case of adults, usually no harm 
results ; but when used to excess, or too strong, tea and coffee 
give rise to certain injurious effects, among which are nervous- 
ness, wakefulness at night, and indigestion. 

311. How Stimulants Act. — As already stated, stimulants 
excite the system or some part of it. Under ordinary circum- 
stances, the body does not require any action of this sort ; and 
frequently, the immediate effect of stimulants of all kinds is fol- 
lowed by an undesirable condition, a reaction, which is the 
opposite of stimulation and is known as "depression" If you 
were driving a pair of horses and wished to cover the ground 
more rapidly, you could, by using the whip, compel the animals 
to exert themselves to their utmost ; but this pace could not be 
kept up beyond a short time ; after which you would be com- 
pelled to walk the horses, until they had rested. Again, if you 
were riding a bicycle, you might cover many miles very rapidly, 
but then you would be compelled to slacken your pace to an 
unusually slow one, because the extra exertion has exhausted 
you. Your increased speed would correspond to " stimulation ; " 
the tired condition which followed would be the " depression" 

312. The feeling of glow and well being which should fol- 
low a healthy meal is due to stimulation, the result of charging 
the blood with nourishment ; this is an example of a healthy 
stimulation which is not followed by the drawback of succeed- 
ing depression. A cold bath, if taken at the right time and if 
not of too long duration, should be followed by a delightful 
feeling of warmth and strength. This also is an example of a 
harmless and useful form of stimulant. 

313. Certain drugs have already been alluded to as being use- 
ful stimulants in cases of sickness, where the system or any 
part of it requires such assistance. What has just been said 
applies to stimulants which are generally harmless in their ac- 



STIMULANTS. 155 

tions. We ssluill now consider a stimulant which, (hough 
sometimes used as a medicine, is more largely consumed for 
another purpose, and one which is the cause of more ill-health, 
unhappiness, and crime, than any other agent with which we 
are acquainted ; this stimulant is alcohol. 



ALCOHOL AND ALCOHOLIC DRINKS. 

314. Discovery of Alcohol.— The name alcohol is de- 
rived from the Arabic, " al-kohl," meaning a powder to paint 
the eye-brows with ; the derivation is not exactly clear, but it is 
thought that the name was applied because alcohol, under cer- 
tain circumstances, gives to the eye a brightness and depth 
which was compared to the effect produced when this powder 
was applied as a paint to the eye-brows. It is said to have 
been discovered about three thousand years ago. At that time 
chemists directed all their energies towards discovering two 
things : One was how to change the common metals into gold, 
and the other to discover a substance, an "elixir of life, " the 
taking of which would give eternal strength and life, and pre- 
vent death. Alcohol was at first believed to be such an 
"elixir of life;" but it did not take the ancients long to find 
out, to their sorrow, that its effects were exactly the opposite. 

315. Alcoholic Drinks. — These are beverages which con- 
tain alcohol. It is this ingredient which makes them intoxicat- 
ing, that is, capable of making men drunk. They vary in the 
proportion of alcohol which they contain ; in general, we can say 
that the greater this proportion, the more harm they do. Be- 
sides this difference in the amount of alcohol, there is also a 
variation in the flavor or taste of each, depending upon the 
source from which it is derived or upon the choice of flavor 
artificially added. Some are sweet ; some are devoid of sugar ; 
some are bitter; some contain much coloring matter and are 
dark, others are light in color ; some are sparkling, because they 



156 A K ATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

contain escaping gas, and others are free from this (still); 
some are strong and others are weak. But these are merely 
variations ; in every case the harm done depends upon the exist- 
ence of alcohol, and its amount ; they differ chiefly in the pro- 
portion of alcohol they contain. 

316. Non-Alcoholic Drinks. — These are sometimes 
spoken of as " soft " or temperance drinks. They consist of water, 
sweetened, flavored in various ways, and made sparkling by being 
charged with an effervescing and escaping gas. Such drinks 
are harmless, and since they contain no alcohol are non-intoxi- 
cating. Unless taken too cold or in too large a quantity, they are 
not objectionable. As examples, we may mention ginger-ale, 
soda-water, sarsaparilla, root-beer, birch-beer, and lemonade. 

317. Let us now study what alcohol is, how it is made, its 
uses and abuses, its danger, and the great injury and misery 
which it causes. 

318. Properties of Alcohol- — Alcohol is a clear, colorless 
liquid, resembling water in appearance ; it will mix with water 
in any proportion. It is lighter than water. It has a pleasant 
smell, but its taste is hot and burning. If we leave a little ex- 
posed in a saucer, we soon find that it has disappeared into the 
air, and we say it has "evaporated." It takes fire easily, and 
burns with a faint bluish flame, which gives very little light, 
but considerable heat ; and all the alcohol is consumed without 
any smoke or soot. Alcohol is also known as spirit, or spirit of 
wine. 

319. Uses of Alcohol. — Alcohol is very useful to us in a 
number of ways. The property w T hich it possesses of burning 
without smoke and yet giving off heat, makes it valuable when 
used in small lamps, which are known as alcohol-lamps ; these 
are very handy, and, occupying very little space, can be carried 
about and used for heating water and food, especially when we 
wish to do so rapidly and for a short period. Alcohol will mix 
with or dissolve a great many things which water will not dis- 
solve. Oils and resins will not mix with water, but alcohol 



STIMULANTS, 157 

will dissolve them ; by dissolving resins of various kinds in 
alcohol, varnishes are made. The druggist uses alcohol, pure 
or mixed with water, to dissolve or extract the active prin- 
ciples or valuable parts of various roots, barks, leaves, seeds, or 
of whole herbs ; in this way many medicines are made which 
are called tinctures. Or, if the alcohol is used to dissolve cer- 
tain oils which escape readily into the air, we speak of the 
medicines as essences or spirits. 

320. Alcohol has a great fondness for water, and it will take 
it from any substance with w T hich it comes in contact. On this 
account it has the property of hardening animal tissues which 
are placed in it ; it abstracts the water and then the fleshy 
parts shrink and shrivel and become hard and brittle. At the 
same time it prevents them from decomposing and becoming 
offensive ; hence, many moist animal and vegetable tissues 
which it is desirable to keep for future examination and study 
are preserved in alcohol. 

321. Alcohol will not freeze, no matter how low the tempera- 
ture ; hence, it is used to fill the tubes of thermometers which 
are to be used in very cold countries, or to register very low 
temperatures. When used for this purpose, it is usually col- 
ored red, so that it can be more readily seen, since, as has been 
stated, in the pure state it is colorless. Ordinary thermometers 
contain mercury ; but this becomes solid when exposed to great 
cold, and consequently useless under this condition. 

322. How Alcohol is Made. — Alcohol is derived exclu- 
sively from the vegetable world, and yet, during the life of plants, 
no alcohol can be detected. It is formed from, the starch and 
sugar which the vegetable world produces, but not so long as 
the parts of the plant are in a natural condition. The sap of 
the sugar-cane is rich in sugar, but, while rooted in the ground 
and living, no alcohol is formed ; it is only wdien cut and 
crushed that alcohol makes its appearance. In the same man- 
ner, grain and vegetables contain much starch ; but so long as 
the outside covering remains intact, no alcohol forms. Alcohol 



158 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

is a product of decompositioyi, and does not exist as such in 
nature. 

323. Fermentation. — The process by which starch and 
sugar are changed into alcohol is an example of what is known 
as fermentation. Sugar can be converted directly into alcohol; 
but starch must first become sugar before fermentation will 
change it into alcohol. If we take anything containing starch, 
whether it be grain — wheat, rye, corn, etc. — or certain vege- 
tables (potatoes), crush the mass, mix with water, and keep in 
a warm place, we soon find that the starch in these substances 
has changed into sugar ; this is the first step in the process of 
fermentation. If this same mixture is allowed to stand a little 
longer under the same conditions of moisture and warmth/ the 
next change is the conversion of the sugar into alcohol. If, 
instead of starting with starch and first converting it into 
sugar, we begin with a sugary mass, alcohol will result more 
quickly. 

324. Changes Produced by Fermentation. — While the 
sugar is being converted into alcohol, little bubbles of gas will be 
seen escaping into the air, and the liquid is said to be working, 
or fermenting. At the same time it is losing its sweet taste. If 
any one has noticed fresh cider losing its sweetness and becom- 
ing what is called "hard," he will have noticed that bubbles of 
gas continue to escape until there is no sweetness left ; this is 
an example of fermentation. After a time the cider will no 
longer be sweet, and it will have acquired the taste of alcohol. 

325. Starch and Sugar are Converted into Alcohol 
and Carbonic-Acid Gas. — It has just been stated that the 
starch has first been changed into sugar, and then the sugar 
into alcohol. The alcohol remains in the liquid , while the gas, 
which is poisonous, escapes into the air. Two poisons have 
taken the place of the starch or sugar which existed before. 
The gas, known as carbonic-acid gas, is the same poisonous 
substance which is given off by the lungs in the expired breath, 
and the same which frequently collects in damp cellars and in 



STIMULANTS. 159 

old wells. The process which changes BUgar and starch into 
alco.hol is but one form of fermentation^ and is brought about 
by the growth of minute living bodies which are always present 
in the air, and consequently soon fall into any liquid which 
is exposed. 

326. Minute Living Bodies in the Air— Germs. — As 
we shall see later on, there are many different kinds of fermen- 
I if ion, the process of changing starch and sugar into alcohol 
being merely one of them. The kind of fermentation which 
takes place depends upon the particular form of these minute 
living bodies that enters the liquid and grows in it. Millions 
of them are always present in the air. They are so minute, 
that it is only when a number of them are examined together, 
with a very strong microscope, that they can be studied. In 
many cases it is not certain whether they belong to plant or to 
animal life. Some give rise to fermentation, others cause liquids 
to become mouldy, to rot, or putrefy, and still others are respon- 
sible for all the contagious diseases, such as diphtheria, scarlet 
fever, measles, small-pox, etc. In every case these germs, as 
they are called, grow and multiply with enormous rapidity, 
and in doing so they produce fermentation, putrefaction, or 
contagious diseases. 

327. The Yeast-Plant. — In the case of that particular 
kind of fermentation which we are discussing, the minute body 
which causes it is known as the yeast-plant. It is of vegetable 
origin and grows very rapidly when it finds a soil particularly 
adapted to it ; such a favorable soil is a starchy or sugary 
liquid. Each cell grows rapidly and then divides, forming two 
cells ; in this manner it soon vastly increases its bulk. In 
changing starchy or sugary solutions into alcoholic liquids, it 
is often more convenient and hastens the process to add a little 
yeast, than to take the chances that some of its germs will fall 
in from the air. So much yeast forms when beer is made, that 
the surplus is sold in large quantities by brewers. Yeast has 
one very important and familiar use in the making of bread. 



160 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



328. Fermentation in Bread.— Flour from which bread 
is made consists largely of starch ; it is grain which has been 
finely pulverized. Wheat is used most frequently in America 
for bread ; but in some countries the flour is made from rye. 
The baker adds water and a little salt to the flour, kneads this 
mixture and makes the dough ; a little yeast is added to make 
the dough rise, so that the bread will be light and digestible. 





Fig. 73.— Yeast Cells, Showing Stages in Division of the same Cell. 

The dough is placed in a warm place, which favors the action 
of the yeast. The result is that a small part of the starch be- 
comes changed into sugar and this again into alcohol ; ac- 
companying this process, carbonic-acid gas is also necessarily 
given off. This gas escapes in bubbles, but cannot get through 
the dough ; in trying to work its way out, however, it puffs out 
the dough, making a number of little spaces, and thus causes 
the bread to become light and porous. In this condition, the 
dough is put into the oven and baked, a crust forming on the 
outside. The small amount of alcohol and carbonic-acid gas 
which has been f oimed is driven off by the heat. 



STIM PLANTS. 101 

329. Requisites for Fermentation. — In every form of 
fermentatioD four conditions are necessary : heat, moisture, 
peculiar ferment, such as yeast, and some nutritions matter to 
serve as food for the ferment. The heat must be moderate; 

high degrees of heat will prevent fermentation. This fact is 
made use of in preserving fruit and vegetables. In canning- 
goods, for instance, the filled cans are subjected to a boiling- 
temperature to kill any ferment present, and are then sealed 
to keep out the air and thus prevent other minute living germs 
from entering. In this state nearly all kinds of food may be 
kept almost indefinitely. On the other hand, under a very low 
temperature, fermentation and similar processes will not take 
place ; hence, we make use of refrigerators to keep edibles 
from spoiling. Fermentation in any substance can also be pre- 
vented by driving out all the moisture in it ; hence, dried (de- 
siccated) food will keep for a long time. 

330. Acetous and Alcoholic Fermentation. — The 
most important kinds of fermentation are acetous, forming vine- 
gar, and vinous or alcoholic, forming alcohol. The process of 
alcoholic fermentation has already been explained. 

331. Acetous Fermentation. — By this we mean the 
change of any alcoholic liquid into vinegar. If fresh fruit-juice 
is exposed to the air, bubbles are noticed to rise and escape ; 
soon the juice loses its sweetness and becomes " hard ; " it is 
now intoxicating, because it contains alcohol. If it is still 
further exposed to the air in a warm spot, another change takes 
place ; the alcohol changes into acetic acid, and becomes vine- 
gar, which, as is well known, is very sour. This is an example 
of acetous fermentation. Various fruit-juices are used in the 
manufacture of vinegar, mostly, however, those from apples 
(cider) and from grapes (wine). 

332. Alcoholic Fermentation. — As already explained, 
the yeast-plant is the particular kind of living germ which 
changes starch into sugar and then into alcohol. Such germs 
are constantly present in the air, but we cannot rely upon 



162 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



them for definite results ; on this account it is more satisfactory 
to acid yeast to the fluid which we wish to subject to alcoholic 
fermentation. 

333. Sometimes a sugary liquid is used, such as the juice of 
grapes, from which wine is made, or molasses from which rum 
is made ; in which cases it is not necessary to convert the starch 
into sugar, for sugar is already present. 

334. If the preparation is to be an alcoholic drink, it requires 




Fig 74 —Still for Making Alcoholic Liquor. 

clearing, flavoring, and sometimes coloring. In the case of 
wine, beer, ale, porter, stout, or cider, this clearing is done by 
allowing the liquid to stand, pouring off the clear part and 
straining. The stronger drinks, known as distilled spirits or 
liquors, such as brandy, whiskey, rum, gin, and the like, are 
prepared by a process called distillation. 

335. Distillation. — This is the process by which a fluid 
is changed into vapor by heat, and is then condensed and col- 
lected in the form of a liquid again. In the preparation of 



STIMULANTS. 163 

alcoholic liquors, various grains or other starchy or sugary sub- 
stances are mixed with water and allowed to ferment ; this 
mass is placed in a large copper vessel and heated. The heat 
drives off the alcohol together with a certain amount of water 
in the form of vapor, which passes through a long pipe from 
the top of the still, and by the application of cold is condensed 
into liquid again. This liquid flowing from the further end of 
the pipe (worm) constitutes alcohol or distilled spirits. 

336. If one breathes upon a pane of glass in winter, moisture 
will collect ; this moisture is contained in the expired air and 
is condensed by the coldness of the window-pane. Dew is the 
condensed moisture which existed previously in the air as in- 
visible vapor ; the cold earth causes it to change from vapor 
to liquid form. 

337. Alcohol has such a strong liking for water, that it carries 
a considerable quantity with it in the process of distillation. 
If pure alcohol is wanted, distillation must be repeated several 
times ; each time the alcohol becomes stronger and less w~ater 
is mixed with it. But the union between the two is so great, 
that it is difficult to obtain alcohol absolutely free from water ; 
to manufacture such alcohol, it is necessary to add a substance 
which has even greater affinity for water, before the final dis- 
tillation ; quick-lime is commonly employed for this purpose. 

338. Varieties of Alcoholic Drinks. — All alcoholic drinks 
are intoxicating in proportion to the amount of alcohol which 
they contain. They are watery solutions, containing alcohol 
in various proportions (from one twenty-fifth to one-half of 
their bulk) ; each possesses its own flavor and color. They can 
be divided into five classes : 

1. Malt Liquors — Beers. 

2. Cider. 

3. Wines. 

4. Distilled Spirits — Liquors. 

5. Cordials. 



164 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

339. Malt Liquors and Cider. — Beers, including ale, 
porter, and stout, contain from four to eight per cent, of alcohol ; 
cider has a similar amount. 

340. Malt Liquors— Beer, Ale, Porter, and Stout.— 

Beer is made from barley. Tire barley grains are moistened 
and kept in a warm place until they sprout, that is, until the 
root and the stem begin to form ; the object of this is to 
change the starch of the grain into sugar. As soon as sprout- 
ing commences, the barley is placed into an oven and heated 
so as to stop its growth. This forms malt. The malt is 
crushed, mixed ivith hot water, and the mass allowed to stand. 
In this way the sugar, salts, and the nutritious portions of the 
malt are extracted or dissolved ; this dark liquid is called wort. 
This is strained, and, after hops are added to give it the pe- 
culiar flavor of beer and at the same time a slightly bitter 
taste, it is boiled. Then it is drawn off, cooled to the ordinary 
temperature of the room by being surrounded by large quan- 
tities of ice, mixed with yeast, and allowed to ferment. After 
fermentation has proceeded to a certain point, the yeast is 
separated and the clear effervescent fluid is drawn into casks ; 
this is beer. 

341. Ale, Porter, and Stout. — These are made in a sim- 
ilar manner. The dark brown color of porter and stout is 
produced by adding a quantity of charred malt. 

342. Cider. — This is the fermented juice of apples. The 
fruit is crushed and the juice collected. At first it is sweet and 
contains no alcohol ; but it soon ferments and, its sugar becom- 
ing changed to alcohol, it becomes less sweet (hard). After a 
while, unless protected from the air and heat, it undergoes 
further change, becomes sour, and forms vinegar. 

343. Wines. — Wines usually contain from nine to twenty 
per cent, of alcohol. They are made from grapes. The juice is 
expressed and set aside in large vats. If there be much sugar, 
part of it remains unchanged, since fermentation ceases as soon 
as about seventeen per cent, of alcohol is present ; in such 



STIMULANTS. 165 

oases the wine is sweet and is known as a sweet wine ; many of 
the Italian and Spanish wines are of this character ; as will be 
understood from what has just been said, they contain a large 
percentage of alcohol. In other wines, nearly if not quite all 
the sugar becomes changed into alcohol ; the wine loses its 
sweetness and is then known as a dry wine. 

344. lied wines derive their color from the color of the 
skin of the grapes used. Some wines contain considerable gas 
which causes the cork to pop when the bottle is opened ; these 
effervescent wines, such as champagne, are bottled before fer- 
mentation is completed. Some wines, especially sweet wines, 
have alcohol added to them to keep them from spoiling ; this 
increases, of course, their intoxicating power. 

345. Home-Made Wines.— A great deal of ignorance is 
displayed on the subject of home-made wines. Many people 
believe that because they have manufactured such wines them- 
selves, they must be harmless and innocent. Elderberry ivlne, 
currant wine, gooseberry ivine, and other home-made wines are 
just as injurious as those made from the grape. They contain 
just as large a percentage of alcohol as many of the wines 
made from grapes ; and this being the case, they are just as 
harmful. It is the alcohol which constitutes the injurious por- 
tion of wines and of all other forms of intoxicating drinks. 

346. Distilled Spirits — Liquors. — Liquors contain about 
one-half alcohol ; they are the most intoxicating and the most 
dangerous of all alcoholic drinks. The proportion of alcohol is 
about the same in all of them ; the only difference in the va- 
rious kinds is in the flavor. This depends either upon the 
variety of grain or other substance used in the manufacture, or 
upon whatever flavoring agent is added afterward. Whiskey 
is made from corn or rye, and very cheap forms from potatoes. 
Brandy is made from grapes and other fruit. Rum is distilled 
from molasses. Gin is flavored with juniper berries, and ab- 
sinthe with wormwoods A liquor distilled from rice is called 
arrack, 



166 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

3-47. Cordials. — These are clear, sweetened liquids, variously 
colored, containing about one-third alcohol and flavored with 
different aromatic and pungent oils, such as peppermint, anise, 
fennel, orange, etc. They are known by fancy French names, 
which refer to the flavor or to the place where they were sup- 
posed to have been first manufactured. Some of them are 
distilled liquors to which considerable sugar has been added. 
Most of them are made artificially by mixing one part of al- 
cohol and two parts of water, and then coloring and flavoring 
to suit. 

348. Many of the much-advertised bitters, tonics, elixirs, and 
other patent medicines contain large amounts of alcohol. They 
are not only capable of doing great injury, but are deceptive, 
and thus often establish the craving for alcoholic drink in per- 
sons who were ignorant that they were taking what practically 
amounts to liquor. 

349. A great many wines, liquors, and cordials are made arti- 
ficially. Alcohol and water are mixed in various proportions, 
more or less sugar added, then the peculiar flavor adapted to 
each variety, and finally a sufficient amount of coloring matter. 
Many of the substances added in the artificial manufacture of 
alcoholic drinks are of a very injurious and poisonous character ; 
thus other poisons are added to the alcohol. 

350. General Effects of Alcohol and Alcoholic 
Drinks. — Having studied what alcohol is, its properties, how 
alcoholic drinks are manufactured, and the different varieties, 
w T e will now consider the effects of alcohol. Alcohol in various 
forms is often prescribed by the physician for use as a medicine ; 
most doctors, however, realize how much responsibility at- 
taches to their recommendation of liquids containing alcohol 
even for this purpose ; for the alcohol habit is begun in many 
by the well-meant directions of the medical adviser. In certain 
fevers and wasting diseases, alcoholic drinks are prescribed not 
only as stimulants but as food. But because it may act as a 
food under such conditions, we are not justified in assuming 



STIMULANTS. 167 

thai it can be used as a food at all times, for ordinarily it does 
not act as a food. It is intoxicating, and the very meaning of 
the word, which is derived from the Latin signifying arrow- 
poison, indicates its nature. 

351. It may be argued that many people are in the habit of 
using moderate amounts of alcoholic drinks without any appar- 
ent injury ; but the same can be said of every other poisonous 
substance. No one will deny that the world would be infinitely 
better of if there was no such thing as alcoholic drink, or even 
alcohol itself Some other substance would undoubtedly be 
found to take its place. If a prison be visited, and the convicts 
be asked about the crimes which brought them there, it is as- 
tonishing how many of them will ascribe their downfall to 
drink. Many a man, who w r ould otherwise have been a good 
and useful citizen, has been made a criminal by this poison. It 
may safely be said that there is no cause of crime so great and 
widespread as drink. 

352. Alcohol as a Medicine. — Just as other poisons may 
be of value, w r hen taken in proper dose and under the directions 
of a physician, so alcohol may have its use as a medicine. In cer- 
tain wasting diseases and weakening fevers, some doctors employ 
alcoholic drinks as stimulants and as food. But even this use 
is becoming less and less ; medical men are prescribing alcohol 
for this purpose very much less than they did formerly. Other 
drugs are being given for purposes for which alcohol seemed 
valuable ; and these frequently act as satisfactory substitutes 
for alcohol when prescribed as a stimulant ; and liquid foods in 
a form so as to be easily digested are now often given in fevers 
and wasting diseases, where formerly alcohol was considered 
advisable. 

353. The danger of creating the alcohol habit, the craving 
for alcoholic drink, is so great, that an attempt has been made 
in certain hospitals to do away with this risk in case the physi- 
cian thinks it advisable to prescribe alcohol. The plan, having 
this object in view, has been to prescribe a mixture of equal 



168 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

parts of alcohol and water in place of brandy or whiskey. Since 
these liquors contain about one-half alcohol, the effect upon the 
system is the same. But since the peculiar flavor of the brandy 
or whiskey is absent, the patient is in ignorance of what is 
given as a medicine, and will be much less likely to acquire the 
alcohol habit. For, as a matter of fact, very few drinkers would 
care to take plain alcohol and water ; it is the flavoring, sweet- 
ening, and peculiar taste of the liquor which tempts them. 

354. Alcohol is not ordinarily a Food. — The various 
alcoholic drinks contain no nutritious matter at all excepting 
beer, ale, porter, and stout, and these contain such a small 
proportion that we would be compelled to take a very large 
quantity to obtain a comparatively small amount of nourishing 
material. If we did this, we would necessarily have to drink a 
considerable amount of alcohol ; hence, whatever value they 
might have on account of a small proportion of nourishment, 
is neutralized and overshadowed by the injurious results of the 
alcohol. There are many authorities who never prescribe it 
in any form and under any circumstances, and they claim to be 
able to produce the same results with other agents and to have 
just as much success as those w T ho prescribe alcohol. One glass 
of milk, one plate of gruel, one slice of roast beef, or one cup of 
broth contains more nutrition than many glasses of beer, ale, 
stout, or porter. There can be no excuse therefore for the 
consumption of alcoholic drinks on the plea of being nourish- 
ing or wholesome. We can safely say that ordinarily alcohol 
does not act as a food. 

355. Effects of Alcohol upon the Tissues and Func- 
tions of the Body. — Alcohol and alcoholic drinks have the 
following effects upon the tissues of the body : 

356. Effects of Alcohol upon the Stomach-— If we 
moisten a portion of the skin with alcohol, cover this part with 
a glass so that the alcohol cannot escape into the air, and repeat 
this operation several times, we will find that the moistened 
spot has become inflamed and reddened. If this effect can be 



STIMULANTS. 169 

produced upon the skin which is adapted to irritation of all 
sorts, we can imagine how much greater is the effect of alcohol 
upon the delicate lining of the stomach. It irritate* this lining 
and reddens it. The small blood-vessels in the wall of the 
stomach remain over-filled with blood. Just as alcohol tough- 
ens tissues which are placed in it, so the walls of the stomach 
become hardened after a time ; when this takes place, the glands 
of digestion become changed. The stomach is then no longer 
properly suited for its work, that of digestion. 

357. When a large quantity of alcoholic drink is added to the 
food in the stomach it pi'events it from being digested ; it takes 
to itself the pepsin in the gastric juice, and without this the 
digestive fluid becomes useless, since it is the pepsin in solution 
which digests the food in the stomach. When alcoholic drink 
causes nausea and vomiting, the vomited material will have the 
same form as when swallowed, showing that alcohol interfered 
with its digestion. This vomiting often takes place in the 
morning just after rising ; sometimes there is blood mixed with 
the fluid expelled from the stomach. The drinking man fre- 
quently attempts to control these symptoms by taking some 
strong liquor before breakfast. Topers suffer constantly from 
dyspepsia and the many annoying and serious results which 
follow it. 

358. Effects of Alcohol upon the Intestines.— Alcohol 
has the same irritating effects upon the intestines as it has upon 
the stomach. It reddens this part of the digestive tract, irri- 
tates it, and after a time makes it tough and unsuited for its 
particular work. Since part of digestion (especially that of 
starchy and fatty food) is carried on in the upper part of the 
small intestine, this function is very much interfered with as 
one of the effects of alcohol. 

359. Effects of Alcohol upon the Liver. — While a small 
part of the alcohol taken in the form of alcoholic drink is 
changed and consumed in the stomach and blood, the greater 
part circulates in the blood-vessels as alcohol ; in this way it irrir 



170 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

t ates every organ with which it comes in contact. This irrita- 
tion shows itself especially in the liver. This organ has an 
enormous quantity of blood passing through it ; its function is 
to purify this blood, to add a certain nourishing substance to 
it, and to make the bile. When irritated by alcohol in the 
blood, the liver becomes enlarged and choked up ; it no longer 
purifies the blood by removing those poisonous materials which 
it separates in health. 

360. As a result of this constant irritation new tissue is added 
to the liver. This new material is not composed of liver-cells, 
but of a form of tissue which is not only useless but very harm- 
ful ; it encroaches upon and destroys many of the cells and 
thus interferes with the work of the liver. After a time, the 
new tissue shrinks and as a result the liver becomes much smaller 
and more solid than in health ; in shrinking, it compresses the 
veins and the small vessels through which the bile flows, and 
does much damage in this way. Such a liver is frequently only 
half as large as in health. Although this condition may be due 
to other causes, the great majority of cases are the result of 
alcoholic drink. It is called "gin-drinker's liver" or " hob- 
nailed liver" because the surface of such diseased livers is cov- 
ered with little lumps resembling the head of a hob-nail. 

361. Effects of Alcohol upon the Muscles.— Alcohol 
has a very injurious effect upon muscular tissue ; it acts as a 
poison upon the development of muscle, and changes it into fat. 
When a muscle contains much fat, it becomes soft, weak, and 
useless. It should be the constant aim to keep the muscles in good 
condition so that they shall be strong, hard, and prominent ; the 
body which has muscles of this sort is said to be well developed. 
The use of alcoholic drink interferes with this development. 
Look at the drunkard and see how weak and flabby his muscles 
are ; he may look big, but this is due to fat and not to well- 
developed muscular tissue. Though he looks large, he is bloated 
and puffed up ; is really weak and tires easily. 

362. Effects of Alcohol upon the Bones.— If alcoholic 



STIMULANTS. 171 

drink bo indulged in in youth and before the skeleton baa be- 
come fully formed, it may prevent it from reaching its natural size. 
The bones of drunkards break more easily than do those of others. 

After an accident — and intoxication frequently results in such 
injury — if a fracture lias taken place, the broken ends of the 
fractured bone or bones to ill not unite as quickly or as nicely as 
they do in temperate persons. 

363. Effects of Alcohol upon the Heart. — Alcohol ex- 
cites the heart and causes it to act too rapidly. When too great 
a demand is made upon any organ it cannot act properly, and 
after a time permanent changes take place, which interfere with 
its function. As a result of the use of alcohol the heart increases 
in size. It would seem as though this ought to be an advan- 
tage ; but as a matter of fact it is just the opposite. Any organ 
which differs in size from the healthy one, must suffer in its 
work. The heart which has become too large as a result of the 
irritating effects of alcohol, does its work poorly. It acts imper- 
fectly or irregularly, sometimes too rapidly, sometimes too 
slowly. 

364. Since alcohol changes muscle tissue into fat, and since 
the heart is formed of this kind of tissue, the use of alcohol 
soon converts considerable of the heart tissue into fat. This 
change naturally weakens the heart and it cannot beat so 
strongly as it should. As a result the blood is no longer 
pumped into the arteries properly and the entire body suffers. 
Parts receive too little blood and as a consequence become pale 
and thin. Sometimes when there is much fat mixed with the 
muscle of the heart, its walls become extremely weak and as a 
result the heart may burst ; then instant death ensues. The 
heart is often weakened so much, as a result of poisoning from 
alcohol, that death ensues, because this organ has become too 
weak and gives out — a condition known as heart failure. 

365. Effects of Alcohol upon the Blood-vessels. — The 
walls of the blood-vessels become changed as the result of alco- 
holic drink ; they lose their elasticity and become dilated, stiff, 



172 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

and brittle. In this condition the blood-vessel is liable to burst. 
When this change takes place in the arteries of the brain, as 
often happens, and one bursts, the accident is known as apo- 
plexy. It is a very serious result and may lead to paralysis ; it 
often causes the person afflicted to become unconscious and 
frequently results in sudden death. Apoplexy may occur in 
those who are not drunkards, but it does often occur in persons 
who indulge in large quantities of alcoholic drink. 

366. The blood-vessels of the skin dilate as an effect of 
alcohol, and then hold more blood than ordinarily. This ex- 
plains the flushed face which some people have after drinking 
alcoholics. It explains also why there is a temporary feeling of 
warmth which deceives one into believing that alcohol increases 
the heat of the body. As a matter of fact, alcohol has just the 
opposite effect. Blood is driven into the blood-vessels of the 
skin and the nerves of sensation ending here, a sense of warmth 
is imparted ; but this blood is taken from other and more im- 
portant parts, and these suffer. 

367. Sometimes this enlargement of the blood-vessels of the 
skin becomes permanent ; it then frequently shows itself upon 
the nose. Enlarged and prominent veins upon the nose of a 
drunkard give rise to the well-known " red nose" by which we 
can often detect the unfortunate victim of alcoholic drink. 

368. Effects of Alcohol upon the Lungs.— Part of 
the alcohol which is taken in is given off by the expired breath ; 
hence, the breath of a drunkard is alcoholic. Alcohol reaches 
the lungs by means of the blood ; in passing through the 
breathing apparatus it causes irritation. While we are not 
certain that it produces any great changes in the lungs, we do 
know that persons addicted to the alcohol habit are more liable 
to suffer from certain slow and- obstinate forms of lung trouble 
than others. The drunkard is also particularly liable to die, if 
he is stricken with pneumonia, by which we mean inflammation 
of the lungs ; his chances of recovery are very much fewer 
than if he were not addicted to alcohol. 



STIMULANTS. 173 

369. Effects of Alcohol upon the Nervous System. — 
The effects of alcohol are probably shown more; prominently 

upon the nervous system than upon any other part of the body. 
Every part of the nervous system — brain, spinal cord, and nerves 
— becomes injuriously affected as a result of alcoholic drinks. 
Many diseases of the nervous system of slow growth and tedious 
Juration are caused by alcoholic excesses. The records of 
insane asylums and hospitals for nervous diseases give un- 
doubted testimony of this ; one quarter of all the cases of insanity 
in this country are the result of alcoholism. 

370. Effects of Alcohol upon the Brain. — As a result of 
the irritating effects of alcohol, the brain first becomes excited ; 
this excitement is soon followed by the opposite condition, and 
the person becomes dull and stupid. It is sometimes stated 
that alcohol rouses the brain and enables it to do more and 
better work ; it has also been stated that certain authors have 
done their best work when somewhat under the influence of this 
poison. But such statements are either entirely erroneous or 
merely show what is exceptional. People who do much brain- 
work usually agree that they are more active without the use of 
alcoholics. 

371. Alcohol excites the brain in one way, but it is not the 
most desirable function (the intellect) which is stimulated. It 
excites the emotional faculty and does this according to the 
natural disposition of the individual ; persons who have a merry, 
good-natured disposition are apt to become boisterously happy ; 
others who are of a quarrelsome tendency become noisy and 
disposed to fight. It unbridles the tongue and tempts the un- 
happy victim to say tilings which he should not say, and which 
he feels ashamed of afterward. It blunts all the nobler instincts, 
and lets loose those of an animal nature. 

372. The membranes covering the brain become thickened and 
tough. The brain itself may become hardened. 

373. Effects of Alcohol upon the Spinal Cord. — 
Alcohol causes a number of slow, tedious, and serious diseases of 



174 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

the spinal cord. It interferes with proper locomotion and use of 
the muscles. This is controlled by the spinal cord. The 
power to move about may be very much interfered with. In 
drunkenness, the gait is very unsteady ; the victim does not 
seem to be able to move his lower limbs so as to walk correctly. 
In the same way, the upper limbs cannot be controlled as they 
should be, and many ridiculous actions result when an attempt 
is made to use them in even the simplest manner. 

374. Effects of Alcohol upon the Nerves.— The nerves 
soon become affected ; this shows itself in unsteadiness. The 
trembling hands of the drunkard are due to this cause. When 
he attempts to put out his tongue, this organ also twitches. 

375. Drunkenness. — When the victim of the alcoholic 
habit imbibes a sufficient quantity to get himself in a condition 
in which he is no longer responsible for what he does, we say 
he is drunk or intoxicated. An intoxicated person becomes 
stupid in intelligence, but excited in other ways. If he is 
naturally cheerful, he will become noisily gay, or attempt to 
sing in a hoarse manner, or laugh like a fool. If he is usually 
more serious, he may scold or attempt to make a speech, saying 
many ridiculous things. If he is usually quarrelsome, he will 
become very disagreeable ; he will fight, and he then becomes 
dangerous. A drunken individual is unable to control his speech, 
is unconscious of what he is saying, and allows his tongue to 
run away with him. He is unable to walk straight ; he staggers 
along in a pitiable way, catching on to lamp-posts, railings, and 
fences for support. Every part of the body becomes unsteady 
and trembles. He forgets that he is a human being and acts 
like a brute. A drunken man is a disgusting sight ! 

376. If drunkenness be repeated many times and becomes a 
habit, the memory begins to fail, the person becomes bloated 
and fat, the complexion poor, his breath offensive, his health 
fails, and he becomes feeble ; his hands tremble, his eyes and 
nose are constantly reddened ; he becomes careless and dirty, 
unfit for any occupation, or any society. 



STIMULANTS. 175 

Ml. Delirium Tremens. --As a result of drunkenm 
there is often produced a disease of the nervous system called 
delirium tremens y this means that the person is out of his mind 
and that his body is in a trembling condition. This affection 
often results iii death within a few days. While it lasts, the 
drunkard is not responsible for his acts. His entire body 
trembles. He attempts all sorts of violent acts — injury to 
others, murder, and suicide. He has an insane idea that he is 
being pursued by enemies and, in endeavoring to escape, often 
jumps from the window, and in other ways exposes himself to 
great risks. He imagines that he sees mice, rats, snakes, and 
other animals, and he thinks these are pursuing him ; from 
these also he tries to escape. In his delirium a constant de- 
sire to escape asserts itself ; it is impossible to keep him quiet. 

378. Effects of Alcohol upon the Sight.— When al- 
cohol is used in large quantities it has a very disastrous effect 
upon the nerve of the eye, the optic nerve, and consequently 
upon sight. Not every case of alcoholic excess is followed by 
this change ; but it occurs often enough, especially in those 
who indulge freely in alcoholic liquor of the stronger sort, to 
make it a result very much to be dreaded. When this affec- 
tion occurs, the optic nerve ivastes away, and many of its 
nerve-fibres disappear. One of the first symptoms is color-, 
bli/idness. At first there is only partial blindness ; the patient 
is still able to see large letters, but cannot see to read fine or 
even medium-sized print. In this stage it is possible to recover 
the sight entirely if the patient has the moral courage to stop 
drinking. But if, as is so often the case, he cannot resist the 
temptation, the wasting of the optic nerve continues and ends 
in complete blindness. 

379. Effects of Alcohol upon the Heat of the Body.— 
There is an erroneous idea, which is quite prevalent, that alcohol 
increases the warmth of the body. This error is founded 
upon the fact that alcohol drives the blood into the skin, caus- 
ing it to become red and moist, and giving a feeling of warmth 



176 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

to the body. This is only because the nerves of sensation end 
in the skin and the increased warmth of the surface of the body 
makes us imagine that the rest of the body is similarly affected. 
As a matter of fact this increased warmth only applies to the 
surface and soon passes off; then, not only the surface, but 
also the interior of the body possesses less heat than before. 
Alcohol causes an actual lowering of the temperature of the 
body. 

380. Experiments in which the bodily temperature was ac- 
curately measured have proven this over and over again. In 
fact, those physicians who use alcohol as a medicine in certain 
exhausting fevers do so chiefly to reduce the fever. This ef- 
fect of alcohol w 7 as shown very w r ell in Napoleon's campaign in 
Russia; those soldiers who did not indulge in alcoholic drinks 
were able to bear the intense cold much better than those who 
drank such beverages ; among those who succumbed to the 
severe cold and exposure, by far the majority were addicted to 
the use of alcohol. Unquestionable proof of this effect was 
furnished by the histories of several North-polar expeditions, 
where men who drank freely of liquor were frozen before the 
rest. Persons who are exposed to great cold, know from ex- 
perience that they do better without alcoholic drink. Hot 
coffee, tea, milk, or broth are the most useful and effective bev- 
erages to warm the system. 

381. Effects of Alcohol upon Muscular Strength. — 
It is also a mistaken idea that alcohol increases muscular 
strength and the power of endurance. Alcohol is the enemy of 
muscle-tissue ; it changes it into fat. Of all obstacles to the 
development of muscle, there is none greater than alcohol. 
This is so well known that all persons who train in order to ac- 
complish physical feats requiring unusual strength and the 
best of health, give up all use of alcohol. Even prize-fighters, 
limited as their intelligence usually is, have found this out 
from experience and consider abstinence from alcoholic drinks 
as a part of their system of training. Experiments upon whole 



STIMULANTS. 177 

armies of men have demonstrated the fad that soldiers can 
withstand fatigue and exposure much heller when deprived of 
alcoholics. 

382. Training. — The word train requires some explana- 
tion. It means to prepare one's self for great muscular feats, 
where extraordinary strength and endurance are necessary. 
Such a system of preparation or training necessitates the most 
regular and healthful life — retiring early and rising early ; 
eating the most digestible and strength-giving food ; plenty of 
out-door exercise ; abstinence from alcohol and tobacco. All 
this is done to develop the strength and the power of endur- 
ance, and to make the muscles as strong as possible. 

383. Everyone has probably heard of the great boat-races 
which take place every year between Columbia and Harvard, 
and between Harvard and Yale Universities, and also of the 
great foot-ball games every autumn. There is great rivalry in 
athletic sports between the colleges and, of course, each likes 
to defeat the other. Each member of these boat crews or 
football elevens, trains throughout the winter and spring until 
the day of the race or game, so as to become as strong and 
robust as possible and increase the chances of winning. Every 
member of the crew or eleven leads a most regular life, and 
smoking and the use of alcoholic drinks are absolutely for- 
bidden. 

384. Effects of Alcohol upon the Power to Resist 
Disease and to Recover from Accidents. — The power 
to resist disease is very much weakened in those addicted to al- 
coholic drink. If such a person becomes ill with some serious 
disease, his chances of recovery are very much fewer than if he 
had abstained ; this is particularly the case in pneumonia. A 
report of the British Medical Association gives the following 
figures : In ten hundred and sixty-five cases of pneumonia, 
there were one hundred and ninety-two deaths. The number 
of deaths among the total abstainers was ten per cent., among 
the temperate, seventeen per cent., and among the intemperate 



178 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

forty-two per cent. If the victim of the alcohol habit meets 
with an accident, it will take him longer to recover ; in the 
case of a fracture, the ends of the broken bone unite with much 
greater difficulty than in ordinary cases. 

385. It has been stated that alcohol interferes with the 
power to resist cold. It is also a fact that persons addicted to 
the use of alcoholic drinks are less able to withstand prostra- 
tion and diseases caused by excessive heat than are those who 
do not indulge. The testimony of Livingstone, the great Afri- 
can traveller, is that in his exploring campaigns into the heart 
of Africa, exposed to the dangers of great heat and prostrating 
fevers, those of his command who avoided alcohol showed the 
greatest amount of health and power to withstand the depress- 
ing influences of the climate. 

386. Alcohol and the Expectancy of Life.— Life insur- 
ance companies give us the best estimates of the chances of 
long life among the victims of the alcohol habit, as compared 
with those who have abstained from alcohol. It may be well 
to explain the principle upon which these life insurance com- 
panies do business. Life insurance has for its object the pay- 
ment of a certain sum of money by the company to the heirs 
of the insured person, after the death of the latter. In order 
to become insured, a person is examined by the company's 
doctor and must be in good health ; he must then pay a cer- 
tain sum of money to the company every year, usually only a 
small fraction of the amount he becomes insured for. 

387. Insurance companies have made out tables showing 
how long a person can expect to live at any given age ; of 
course, these show only averages, for none of us can say he will 
be alive to-morrow or knows when he will die. These tables 
give what is called the " expectancy of life ; " they show that 
the average length of life in persons who indulge freely in 
alcoholic drink is much shorter than in others, and in the case 
of drunkards it is very short indeed. 

388. At the age of twenty, the expectancy of life in the 



STIMULANTS. I?'.) 

sober is forty-four years; in the (lninl.cn it is fifteen years. 
At the age of thirty, the expectancy of life in the sober is thir- 
ty-six years; in the drunken if is fourteen years. At th 
of forty, the expectancy of life in the sober is twenty-nine 
years ; in the drunken it is only eleven years. 

389. Fifty years experience of one large insurance company 
has shown that the deaths among men who are engaged in the 
liquor business and who drink a great deal, are half as many 
again as among all other classes of individuals of the same age. 
No company will knowingly insure a drunkard, for the reason 
that his chances for a long life are very few. Many companies 
refuse to insure saloon-keepers, because they are usually com- 
pelled to take much alcoholic liquor. 

390. Moral Effects of Alcoholic Drink.— The moral 
view of the alcohol question is a very important one. No one 
will deny that it is a shocking sight to behold an intoxicated 
man stagger along the street, holding on to anything for sup- 
port, unable to control speech or motion, offensive in breath, 
and dirty in appearance. 

391. Even the milder forms of alcoholic poisoning are asso- 
ciated with conditions which are well worth considering. There 
are millions of dollars uselessly spent for alcoholic drink each 
year. How many useful things this immense sum of money 
would purchase and how much good it might accomplish j 
Consider how much time is wasted in saloons, often in 
wretched companionship, which might otherwise be given to 
the family at home. 

392. The Alcohol Habit. — Men do not become drunk- 
ards at once ; they reach this stage gradually. They commence 
with small quantities of drink. The habit of drinking is 
formed and grows until larger and larger amounts must be 
consumed in order to satisfy. The use of alcoholics creates an 
appetite or craving for more. As long as alcohol is in the sys- 
tem, there exists a desire for it ; and the amount necessary to 
satisfy this longing constantly increases ; an appetite for more 



180 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, A1STD HYGIENE. 

alcohol is created and this is frequently almost irresistible. 
The danger increases because the moral power to resist be- 
comes weakened. Thus a vicious circle is set up which im- 
prisons its victim and leads to drunkenness. 

393. Dipsomania. — The alcohol appetite, when established, 
constitutes a serious disease; it is a form of insanity — a va- 
riety of mania, called dipsomania (meaning drink - madness). 
Special institutions known as inebriate asylums are built for 
these unfortunate victims. These institutions receive many pa- 
tients ; here and there a permanent cure results ; but usually 
there is but a temporary cessation of drinking, and sooner or 
later the inebriate lapses into his former habits. 

394. Nor is this all. The alcohol appetite, the irresistible 
desire for alcoholics, is sometimes transmitted from one genera- 
tion to another ; the infirmity of the parent is not infrequently 
inherited by the children. 

395. Alcohol is a Costly Vice.— In 1893, the con- 
sumption of alcoholic drink in the United States reached the 
following enormous figures : Distilled spirits (liquors), one hun- 
dred million gallons ; wines, thirty million gallons ; malt liq- 
uors, twelve hundred million gallons. The yearly cost of al- 
coholic drink in the United States is said to be over one billion 
dollars. 

396. Alcohol and Crime. — The use of intoxicating liq- 
uor is the most common cause of crime ; this fact must be con- 
ceded by everyone. One of the reports of the Prison Associa- 
tion of New York contains the following passage : "There can 
be no doubt that of all the proximate sources of crime the use 
of intoxicating liquors is the most prolific and the most deadly. 
Of other causes it may be said that they slay their thousands ; 
of this it may be acknowledged that it slays its tens of thou- 
sands. The committee asked for the opinion of the jail officers 
in nearly every county of the State as to the proportion of com- 
mitments due either directly or indirectly to strong drinks. 
The judgment of these jail officers varied from two-thirds, the 



STIMULANTS. 181 

st estimate, to nine-tenths as the highest, and on reduc- 
ing the several proportions to the average, seven-eighths was 
the result obtained." 



COFFEE, TEA, COCOA AND CHOCOLATE. 

397. Coffee, tea, cocoa, and chocolate are among the most 
common artificial drinks and are very useful forms of stimu- 
lants. Their stimulating effects depend upon the presence of 
an active agent which is practically identical in each. In cof- 
fee, it is called coffein ; in tea, thein ; and when derived from 
cocoa, theobromine These act as gentle stimulants without in- 
jurious reaction ; there is no objection to their use in moderate 
quantity by adults. Coffee and tea are not suitable for chil- 
dren ; if used at all, the quantity should be limited to a small 
amount — just enough to color or flavor the milk. 

398. Coffee. — Most of the coffee used in this country comes 
from the West and East Indies, Arabia, and South America. 
The part of the plant used is the berry. The berries are dried 
and roasted, developing a delicious flavor or aroma. The 
roasted coffee "beans" are ground; then boiling water is 
poured upon them and the whole mixture allowed to boil for 
a minute or two, making a decoction. This process extracts 
the caffein, coloring matter, flavor, and a moderate quantity of 
nutritious matter. 

399. Coffee causes a restful feelinr/ after exhausting efforts 
of body and mind. It is a valuable addition to food and may 
also be regarded as a temporary substitute for food. With a 
liberal allowance of coffee laborers are able to do a large 
amount of work upon a moderate quantity of food. 

400. In armies, it is a most valuable addition to rations, 
which are frequently imperfect ; it relieves the sense of fatigue 
after long marches and unusual taxes upon endurance. After 
exposure to cold, it is an ideal stimulant ; it relieves the de- 



182 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY. AND HYGIENE. 

pressing effects of low temperature, and since it is usually 
taken hot, supplies beat to the body at the same time, as has 
been effectively demonstrated in Arctic expeditions. Coffee 
is, therefore, a valuable and harmless stimulant, acting like a 
charm upon tired conditions of the system, and free from the 
objections to alcoholic drinks. 

401. These are the general effects of coffee ; there are, how- 
ever, exceptions to these favorable actions. Some persons can- 
not drink coffee at all ; in such cases it has a peculiar and 
disagreeable effect and causes nervousness, trembling, headache, 
indigestion, palpitation of the heart, and wakefulness at night. 
Most persons, however, are not thus affected unless they drink 
an excessive amount. 

402. Tea. — The tea-plant is cultivated principally in China, 
Japan, and the East Indies. To prepare tea, boiling water is 
poured upon a small quantity of tea-leaves forming an infusion ; 
it must not be boiled, for this drives off the agreeable flavor 
with the steam, and dissolves too much of a bitter and astrin- 
gent agent in the water. There are many kinds of tea, and 
many mixtures are made to conform to different tastes. Green 
tea is sometimes used ; this variety is apt to be injurious, es- 
pecially in the production of nervous symptoms. 

403. Tea has the same general composition as coffee, but 
has much less nourishing matter. It produces the same effects 
upon the system and forms a desirable stimulant. It also pro- 
duces similar nervous symptoms when used in excess, or when 
taken by those persons in whom both tea and coffee act dis- 
agreeably even in small quantities. 

404. Cocoa and Chocolate. — The cocoa-tree is a native 
of tropical America. The seeds contain a stimulating principle 
identical w T ith that found in coffee and tea ; in addition they 
are very rich in nutriment, consisting of about one-half veg- 
etable fat. Cocoa is prepared like coffee by making a decoction 
of the ground seeds. Chocolate is cocoa which has been ground 
up with sugar and certain flavoring agents. Both cocoa and 



STI \1 II. A NT-. L83 

chocolate are desirable stimulants : they are more nutritious 

than either tea or coffee, but A'.<> stimulating. For these rea- 
sons they should receive preference over tea and coffee as bev- 
erages for children. 



COCA-LEAVES AND COCAINE. 

405. Another stimulant which has obtained use of late years, 
is the leaf of the coca-plant, a small, bushy shrub, found and 
cultivated in certain parts of South America. This stimulant 
must not be confounded with cocoa, the bean from which choco- 
late is made. The coca-leaf was first heard of through travellers 
in South America, who gave very graphic accounts of the marvel- 
lous powers of this agent in enabling the natives to endure 
physical hardships, not only sustaining their strength and giving 
them powers of endurance, but postponing the feeling of hunger. 

406. These accounts were evidently exaggerations, since uo 
such wonderful effects follow the use of the leaves as observed 
in this country. However, it has an effect similar to that of tea 
and coffee ; it stimulates and increases the physical and mental 
powers and promotes cheerfulness, tending to do away with feel- 
ing of worry. It is also prescribed by throat doctors who 
claim that it has a good effect in strengthening the vocal cords 
and the voice. But as there is a very serious objection to its use, 
and since other harmless remedies will accomplish similar 
results, coca-leaves are objectionable in any case, unless pre- 
scribed by a physician. 

407. Cocaine. — The effects of coca-leaves are due to the 
existence of an active principle known as cocaine ; this is ob- 
tained in small, white crystals. When taken internally, cocaine 
acts as the coca-leaves from which it is extracted. But when 
applied externally, cocaine has a wonderful effect upon tissues 
with which it comes in contact ; it benumbs the small nerves 
which carry sensations of feeling and of pain ; and in this way 
the part to which it is applied loses all sensation. 



184 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

408. The Cocaine Habit. — But though the use of cocaine 
for controlling pain is wonderful and of the greatest value, it 
has, unfortunately, been attended with very serious and even 
fatal results. Quite a number of persons have acquired the 
habit of taking cocaine and have become slaves to it. In some 
of these cases, the cocaine was given for the cure of the alcohol 
and the morphine habit ; usually it has failed to cure these 
habits and the unfortunate victims have simply had the cocaine 
habit added to the others. Usually the drug is originally taken 
to relieve exhaustion and to exhilarate ; an appetite for cocaine 
is then established, and larger and larger doses are required to 
satisfy. The habit becomes firmly established and produces 
disastrous results upon mind and body. 

409. Similar results may follow the habitual use of " wine of 
coca," a preparation in which the active parts of the coca leaves 
are dissolved in wine. The careless and frequent indulgence in 
this stimulant not only tends to produce the coca habit, but 
favors the alcohol habit as well. 

SYNOPSIS. 

Stimulants — Excite the system or some part of it. 
Drugs: Ammonia, camphor, etc., ''tonics." 
Water and Food ; drink of cold water ; liquid food which is 
easily digested. 

Tea and Coffee ; usually valuable in adults ; not generally suit- 
able for children. 
Cold bath. 

Alcohol and Alcoholic Drinks. 

Discovery of Alcohol — about three thousand years ago. 

Alcoholic Drinks: beverages which contain alcohol; intoxicating; 
vary in their proportion of alcohol ; flavor ; sweet and dry ; dark 
and light ; sparkling and still ; strong and weak ; varieties: 
malt liquors, cider, wines, distilled spirits, cordials. 

Non-alcoholic Drinks: "Soft" or temperance drinks ; non-intoxi- 
cating ; examples : ginger-ale, soda-water, sarsaparilla, root- 
beer, birch-beer, lemonade. 



SUM 1 LA NTS. 185 

Properties o\ % Alcohol : 

1. Clear and colorless liquid. 
•J. Mixes with water. 

3. Resembles water, but lighter. 

4. Pleasant odor. 

5. Takes fire readily and burns with faint bluish flame, no 
smoke or soot. 

6. Gives very little light, but considerable heat. 

7. Taste hot and burning. 

8. Evaporates easily. 
Uses of Alcohol : 

1. Alcohol-lamps very convenient. 

2. Dissolves oils and resins ; makes varnish. 

3. Extracts useful parts of leaves, barks, roots, and herbs, 
forming tinctures ; dissolves certain oils, forming essences or 
spirits. 

4. Making thermometers. 

5. Preserving vegetable and animal tissues. 

Formation of Alcohol : from starch and sugar ; product of decom- 
position. 

Fermentation : change of starch and sugar into alcohol ; due to 
growth of minute living germs from the air ; requisites : mois- 
ture, moderate heat, peculiar germ or ferment, nutritious mat- 
ter for this germ or ferment to feed upon. 
Important varieties : 

1. Acetous— changing alcohol to vinegar ; seen when cider or 
wine sours. 

2. Alcoholic or Vinous — forming alcohol and carbonic-acid 
gas from starchy or sugary fluids, by the aid of yeast, moisture, 
heat, and nutritious matter. 

Germs in the air give rise to 

1. Fermentation. 

2. Mould and putrefaction. 

3. Contagious diseases. 

Yeast-plant : responsible for alcoholic fermentation ; large quantity 
produced in manufacture of beer ; vegetable ; each cell grows 
rapidly and divides to form two cells. Yeast used in baking 
bread to make it light and porous. 

Distillation : the process by which a fluid is changed into vapor by 



186 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

heat and then condensed again into liquid; used in manufac- 
ture of alcohol. 
How Alcohol is Made : 

1. Addition of yeast and water to starchy or sugary substance. 

2. Moderate heat. 

3. Boiling to drive off alcohol— Distillation. 
Varieties of Alcoholic Drinks : 

1. Malt Liquors : Made from malt (barley which has been al- 
lowed to sprout and is then heated in oven) ; contain from four to 
eight per cent, of alcohol. 

a. Beer. 

b. Ale. 

c. Porter. 

d. Stout. 

2. Cider : the fermented juice of apples ; contains from four to 
eight per cent, of alcohol ; when sweet, little alcohol ; when hard, 
considerable alcohol. 

3. Wines : the fermented juice of grapes ; contain from nine to 
twenty per cent, of alcohol. 

"White and red. 
Sweet and dry. 
Effervescent wines. 
Home-made wines. 

4. Distilled Spirits— Liquors : distilled from grain, potatoes, 
molasses, etc. ; contain one-half alcohol ; differ in flavor and color. 

a. Whiskey — from rye or corn ; cheap kind from potatoes. 

b. Brandy — from grapes and other fruit. 

c. Bum — from molasses. 
cl. Arrack — from rice. 

e. Gin— flavored with juniper berries. 
/. Absinthe — flavored with wormwood. 

5. Cordials : sweetened, colored liquids, variously flavored ; 
contain one-third alcohol. 

6. Bitters, tonics, elixirs, and other patent medicines usually 
contain considerable alcohol. 

General Effects of Alcohol and of Alcoholic Drink. 

1. Use as a medicine. 

2. Prescribed by some physicians as a stimulant and as a food 
in fevers and in wasting diseases. 



STIM i i. a \ is. 1ST 

3 GrreaJ responsibility rests upon the physician who thus pre- 
scribes it, on account of the danger of initiating the alcohol habit. 

1. Not used as a medicine, nor as a food as much as formerly. 

"). Many doctors now use other remedies in place of alcohol 
with equally good results. 

6. Ordinarily it does not act as a food. 

7. No nourishment in alcoholic drinks, except in malt liquors, 
and here the amount is small and the alcohol is objectionable. 

S. The world would be much better off without alcohol ; other 
substances would be found to take its place. 

9. No cause of crime so great and wide-spread as drink. 
Elfects of Alcohol upon the Tissues and Functions of the Body : 

1. Irritates and reddens lining of stomach ; hardens lining of 
stomach ; destroys glands. 

2. Nausea and vomiting ; dyspepsia ; indigestion. 

3. Irritates, reddens, and toughens the intestines and interferes 
with digestion of food. 

•i. Enlarges and then contracts liver ; " gin-drinker's " or " hob- 
nailed liver ; " interferes with important work of liver. 

5. Weakens muscle tissue and changes it into fat. 

6. Prevents skeleton from reaching its natural size ; bones 
break easily and then do not unite readily. 

7. Excites the heart, increases its size, causes it to act irregu- 
larly and imperfectly, too rapidly or too slowly ; changes heart 
muscle into fat and weakens it. 

8. Blood-vessels become stiff, brittle, and dilated ; apoplexy of- 
ten occurs. 

9. Flushed face and red nose due to yielding of blood-vessels of 
the skin. 

10. Irritates the lungs ; breath is alcoholic ; pneumonia usu- 
ally fatal in drunkards. 

11. Every part of nervous system injuriously affected ; causes 
many nervous diseases ; causes one-fourth of all cases of insanity. 

12. Excites the emotional faculty of brain, but dulls the intel- 
lect. 

13. Membranes covering brain become thickened and tough- 
ened. 

14 Causes diseases of spinal cord ; interferes with power of 
motion. 



188 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

15. Affects the nerves, causing unsteadiness and trembling. 

16. Drunkenness or intoxication. 

17. Delirium Tremens : out of his mind ; trembling ; violent 
acts ; frightened by imaginary objects ; attempts to escape ; heart 
failure. 

18. Causes partial or complete blindness, through wasting of 
optic nerve. 

19. Diminishes warmth of body. 

20. Diminishes muscular strength and the power of endurance. 

21. Diminishes the power to resist disease and to recover from 
accidents. 

22. Lessens the duration of life. 
The Alcohol Habit. 

1. Acquired gradually. 

2. Grows constantly. 

3. Appetite or craving created. 

4. Very difficult to cure. 

5. Moral sense blunted. 

6. Power of self-control and of resistance to temptation lessened 
or lost. 

7. Danger of relapse after cure. 

8. Dipsomania (drink-madness), a serious disease in which there 
is an uncontrollable desire for alcoholic drink. 

9. Inebriate asylums receive many, but cure few. 

10. Inherited by child from parent. 

11. A costly vice ; annual cost in United States, over one billion 
dollars. 

12. Immense amount of alcohol consumed each year ; in the 
United States, in 1893, this consumption was : distilled spirits, 
one hundred million gallons ; wine, thirty million gallons ; malt 
liquors, twelve hundred million gallons. 

13. The most common cause of crime ; seven-eighths of all crime 
due to strong drink. 

Tea and Coffee : 

1. Valuable stimulants, usually without injurious reaction. 

2. Contain thein (tea) and caffein (coffee). 

3. Not suitable for children. 

4. Tea used in infusion ; coffee in decoction. 

5. Cause restful feeling after exhaustive efforts of body and mind. 



STIMULANTS. 189 

(>. Valuable after exposure to cold. 

7. Some persons disagreeably affected ; nervousness, headache, 

indigestion, palpitation of heart, wakefulness at night. 

8. These effects may follow over-indulgence. 

9. Green tea apt to be injurious. 
Cocoa and Chocolate : 

1. Desirable stimulants. 

2. Contain considerable nourishment. 

3. More nutritious, but less stimulating, than tea or coffee. 

4. Chocolate is cocoa ground up with sugar and flavoring 
•nts. 

5. Useful for children as well as adults. 
Coca Leaves and Cocaine : 

1. Wonderful but exaggerated accounts of effects when used by 
South American Indians. 

2. Eesemble tea and coffee in effects. 

3. Increase physical and mental power, and promote cheerful- 
ness. 

•4. Objectionable unless prescribed by a physician. 

5. Coca leaves contain cocaine ; small white crystals. 

6. Cocaine benumbs the nerves of the part to which it is ap- 
plied ; of immense value in operations upon the eye and other 
parts, deadening pain. 

7. Cocaine poisoning may occur. 

8. Cocaine habit ; very disastrous ; frequently ends in insanity. 



QUESTIONS. 

1. What are stimulants? 2. Which are the most common? 3. 
Give an example of the proper use of stimulants. 4. How do water 
and food act as stimulants? 5. Are tea and coffee useful stimu- 
lants? 6. What condition frequently follows the use of stimulants? 
7. Explain the derivation of the name alcohol. 8. When and how 
was alcohol discovered? 9. What is meant by alcoholic drinks? 
10. What makes them intoxicating? 11. What are the variations in 
alcoholic drinks due to? 12. What is meant by non-alcoholic- 
drinks? 13. What other names are applied to these beverages? 
JL4. What do they consist of ? 15. What examples can you give? 



190 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, 



16. What are the properties of alcohol ? 17. What happens when 
alcohol takes fire ? 18. What are the uses of alcohol ? 19. What 
are alcohol-lamps ? 20. W T hat is varnish ? 21. What are tinctures ? 
22. Why is alcohol used in certain thermometers ? 23. Can alcohol 
be detected during the life of plants ? 24. From what is it formed ? 
25. What is fermentation? 26. What are the requisites for fer- 
mentation ? 27. What are the important varieties of fermentation ? 
28. What is acetous fermentation ? 29. What is vinegar ? 30. How 
is vinegar made? 31. What do you know about the minute living 
bodies or germs in the air ? 32. What different processes do they 
give rise to ? 33. What is alcoholic fermentation ? 34. What is 
the yeast-plant? 35. Why is yeast used in baking bread? 36. De- 
scribe the action of yeast in the process of making bread. 37. How 
is alcohol made ? 38. From what is alcohol formed ? 39. What is 
necessary to produce alcoholic fermentation ? 40. What is distilla- 
tion? 41. W 7 hat kinds of alcoholic drinks are there? 42. What 
are malt liquors? 43. What varieties of malt liquors are there? 
44. How is beer made ? 45. Why is the barley allowed to sprout ? 
46. What is malt ? 47. What is ale ? 48. How are porter and stout 
made? 49. How much alcohol do malt liquors contain ? 50. How 
is cider made ? 51. How much alcohol does it contain ? 52. What 
is the difference between sweet and hard cider ? 53. From what is 
wine made ? 54. How much alcohol do wines contain ? 55. Why 
are some wines white and others red ? 56. What is meant by a 
sweet wine ? 57. What is meant by a dry wine ? 58. What is an 
effervescent wine? 59. Name some home-made wines. 60. Why 
are home-made wines just as injurious as others ? 61. What are 
distilled spirits or liquors? 62. From what are they made? 63. 
How much alcohol do they contain? 64. W T hat is whiskey ? 65. 
What is brandy ? 66. What is rum? 67. What is gin ? 68. What 
is absinthe? 69. What is arrack? 70. What are cordials? 71. 
How much alcohol do they contain ? 72. What is the danger in 
taking bitters, tonics, elixirs, and other patent medicines.? 73. 
What additional danger arises from artificially prepared alcoholic 
drinks ? 74. For what purposes is alcohol prescribed by the phy- 
sician ? 75. Why does the doctor assume a great responsibility when 
he advises alcohol as a medicine? 76. Are alcoholic drinks pre- 
scribed as frequently as a food and stimulant as formerly ? 77. 
Why not? 78. Is alcohol or alcoholic drink ordinarily a food ? 79. 



STIMULANTS. 191 

Is there any nourishment in alcoholic drinks ? 80. Is there any 
nourishment in malt liquors? 81. Why should malt liquors be 
avoided as nourishing food ? 82. What is the meaning and deriva- 
tion of the word intoxicating ? 83. Could we do without alcohol ? 
8-4. What would be the effect upon the world if there were no such 
thing as alcohol ? 85. What influence has the use of alcoholic drink 
upon crime? 86. What effect has alcohol upon the walls of the 
stomach ? 87. What influence has alcohol upon digestion ? 88. 
From what derangement of the stomach do drunkards frequently 
suffer? 89. What effect has alcohol upon the intestines : 90. What 
effect has alcohol upon the liver ? 91. How does it change the size of 
the liver ? 92. W 7 hat is " gin-drinker's liver " ? 93. What effect has 
alcohol upon the development of muscles ? 94. What effect has it 
upon muscle tissue ? 95. What is the large and bloated appearance 
of the drunkard due to ? 96. What effect has alcohol upon the size of 
the skeleton ? 97. What is peculiar about the bones of the drunk- 
ard ? 98. What effect has alcohol upon the union of the ends of 
bone after a fracture ? 99. What are the effects of alcohol upon the 
size of the heart ? 100. What effect upon the walls of the heart ? 
101. What effect upon the action of the heart? 102. What are the 
effects of alcohol upon the blood-vessels ? 103. What is apoplexy ? 
104. What are the results of apoplexy ? 105. What changes occur 
in the skin as a result of alcoholic drink ? 106. To what is the red 
nose of the drunkard due ? 107. What are the effects of alcohol 
upon the lungs? 108. What is peculiar about pneumonia occurring 
in drunkards? 109. What are the effects of alcohol upon the ner- 
vous system in general ? 110. What influence has alcohol upon the 
occurrence of insanity ? 111. What are the effects of alcohol upon 
the brain? 112. Upon the intellect? 113. Upon the emotional 
faculties ? 114. Give examines. 115. What effect has alcohol upon 
the membranes of the brain? 116. Upon the spinal cord? 117. 
Upon the nerves? 118. What is drunkenness or intoxication? 119. 
Describe this state. 120. What condition results when it is re- 
peated a number of times? 121. What is delirium tremens? 122. 
Give its symptoms. 123. What effect has alcohol upon the optic 
nerve ? 124. Upon sight ? 125. Upon the heat of the body ? 126. 
Give examples to show the effect of alcohol upon the warmth of the 
body. 127. What effect has alcohol upon muscular strength ? 128. 
Upon the power of endurance ? 129. What is the object of train- 



192 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

ing? 130. What are the most important rules of training? 131. 
What is the effect of alcohol upon the power to resist disease ? 132. 
Upon the power to recover from accidents ? 133. Give examples. 
134. What effect has alcohol upon the power to resist the depress- 
ing influences of a hot climate ? 135. Upon the expectancy of life ? 
136. Give examples. 137. What is life insurance ? 138. Mention 
some of the moral objections to the use of alcoholic drinks. 139. 
What is the alcohol habit? 140. Why does it grow? 141. What 
does it lead to? 142. What is dipsomania? 143. What are in- 
ebriate asylums? 144. Can the alcohol appetite be inherited? 145. 
How much money is spent in the United States for alcoholic drink 
every year ? 146. How much alcoholic drink is consumed annually 
in the United States ? 147. What relation has alcohol to crime ? 
148. What proof is there that alcohol is the most common 
source of crime ? 149. What is coffee? 150. Where is it obtained? 
151. How is it prepared ? 152. What does it contain ? 153. What 
are its effects ? 154. What disagreeable effects sometimes result 
from the use of coffee? 155. What is tea? 156. Where is it culti- 
vated? 157. How is it prepared? 158. What does it contain? 159. 
What are its effects ? 160. What objection is there to green tea? 
161. What unpleasant effects sometimes result from tea? 162. Are 
tea and coffee suitable for children? 163. What is cocoa? 164. 
What is chocolate ? 165. What are the uses of cocoa and choco- 
late? 166. How do they differ from tea and coffee ? 167. What are 
coca-leaves? 168. Where does the coca-plant grow? 169. How 
was the coca-leaf first heard of? 170. What active principle does 
it contain? 171. What are the effects of the coca-leaf? 172. What 
are the effects of cocaine when taken internally ? 173. What are 
the effects of cocaine when applied externally? 174. Why is it of 
immense value to the surgeon ? 175. What is cocaine poisoning ? 
176. What is the cocaine habit ? 177. What are the results of the 
cocaine habit? 



CHAPTER XL 
NAECOTICS. 

410. Narcotics are drugs which benumb the system, relieve 
pain, and produce sleep. As a result of an over-dose, insensi- 
bility and death may result. Hence, such drugs are powerful 
and are dangerous when taken improperly. Narcotics benumb 
the brain, and thus produce an artificial sleep which usually 
lacks the refreshing qualities of natural sleep, being often fol- 
lowed by a stupid condition and by headache. This is apt to 
be the case when narcotics are taken carelessly and improperly, 
and without a physician's advice. 

411. The narcotics used most frequently to produce sleep 
are opium, morphine, and chloral. Tobacco is a narcotic, but is 
not used to produce sleep. Alcohol is a narcotic when used in 
large amount ; this is seen in a very pronounced manner in the 
heavy sleep which occurs in dead drunkenness. In some per- 
sons, even a small amount of alcoholic drink will act as a nar- 
cotic and cause drowsiness ; this effect is seen especially after 
the use of malt liquors. 

TOBACCO. 

412. The tobacco -plant, the dried leaves of which constitute 
tobacco, was originally a native of America, but is now culti- 
vated in almost every part of the world. 

413. Origin of the Name. — "Tobaco" is the Indian 
name for the pipe in which the leaves were smoked ; Europeans 
applied it to the plant itself. 



194 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



414. History of Tobacco. — The custom of smoking and 
chewing tobacco had been prevalent among the Indians for a 
long time, when America was discovered. In 1560, Nicot, the 
French ambassador, brought some of it to France. It w T as in- 
troduced into England in 1586 by Sir Walter Raleigh ; before 
the end of the century, its use had spread over nearly the whole 
world. 

> 

b 




Fig. 75.— Tobacco Plant. 



415. Cultivation and Preparation of Tobacco. — The 

Cuban leaf is the best in the world, but tobacco grows anywhere 
and everywhere. It is cultivated in every State of the Union, 
though some States grow much more than others. Virginia pro- 
duces over eighty million pounds, and Kentucky over one hun- 
dred and seventy million pounds a year. The plant reaches the 
height of several feet ; it has large, spreading, pale-green leaves. 



NAKCOTICS. 195 

41(>. Ill preparing tobacco for use, the plant is cut near the 
ground at the end of summer, and the leaves are dried on the 

stems, by hanging them in barns. Then they are afterward 
stripped from the stems, moistened, and tied into bundles. 
These are piled up for a number of weeks, during which a sort 
of fermentation goes on ; this brings out a rich brown color 
and develops an aroma. Tobacco is then rolled to form cigars, 
or cut into delicate shreds which are made into small cylinders 
by means of paper or tobacco wrappers to make cigarettes, or 
chopped more or less fine for use in pipes, or ground into a fine 
powder for snuff. When used for chewing, it is mixed with 
sugar or molasses, licorice, and other ingredients, and packed 
in paper or pressed into hard pieces. 

417. Composition of Tobacco. — A large proportion of 
the tobacco-leaf consists of ashes. Its important constituent is 
a very poisonous liquid, which readily escapes into the air and 
which at first is colorless, but soon turns brown ; this poison is 
called nicotine, and tobacco contains from two to nine per cent. 
The odor and aroma of tobacco seems to depend upon an oily 
or fatty substance, called oil of tobacco. 

418. Effects of Tobacco Upon the System.— The ef- 
fects of tobacco upon the system are influenced by habit and 
by the peculiarities of individuals. There is a great difference 
between the effects produced at first, and those which follow 
after the system has become accustomed to it. When first used, 
and in those unaccustomed to it, tobacco produces dizziness, 
headache, perspiration, sickness at the stomach, vomiting, great 
weakness, and trembling. 

419. After a time, the system usually becomes accustomed 
to its use, and a tolerance is established. It then acts as 
a mild narcotic, leaving a sense of repose, and having a 
quieting effect upon the body and mind. But this soothing 
effect is not produced in every user of tobacco. There are 
many persons who never experience it ; and quite a large 
number are made very uncomfortable by tobacco in any form, 



196 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

even in the smallest quantities, and never succeed in becoming 
accustomed to it, or in deriving any comfort or satisfaction 
from its use. 

420. Tobacco as a Medicine- — Tobacco is now no 
longer used as a medicine. Formerly, a tobacco poultice was 
sometimes applied to bruised or inflamed parts ; but this use 
proved objectionable because the poisonous part of the drug 
was taken up into the system through the skin, and often gave 
rise to serious symptoms. 

421. The Tobacco Habit. — The fondness for tobacco is 
an acquired habit. At first it is probably used merely from a 
desire to imitate ; then it becomes a habit and soon causes a 
craving which is satisfied only by larger and larger quantities. 
This habit does not, however, become as firmly rooted as the al- 
cohol habit ; nor can the evils resulting from the use of tobacco 
be compared with those caused by alcohol. 

422. It is a disputed question whether the use of tobacco is 
ever positively beneficial. Many adults seem to be able to use 
tobacco in moderation, without any apparent ill effects. But it 
is also quite certain that a great many individuals are injured 
by it, and in the case of the young, it is unquestionably a poison 
which may cause decided injury. 

423. Injurious Effects of Tobacco on the Adult. — 
Quite a number of adults suffer from symptoms which are 
directly due to the effects of tobacco and are consequently 
evidences of tobacco poisoning. In many cases such symptoms 
are slight, but in many others they are serious enough to de- 
mand the discontinuance of the use of tobacco in any form. 
Tobacco is more apt to produce disagreeable and harmful effects 
when used upon an empty stomach, and appears to be least harm- 
ful w r hen indulged in just after a hearty meal. The poisonous 
effects of tobacco may show themselves in loss of appetite and 
indigestion, in the throat, the lungs, the heart, the eye, and the 
nerves ; they comprise a group of symptoms of very common 
occurrence. 



NARCOTICS. 197 

424. Smokers' Sore Throat.— The irritating effect of 
tobacco smoke often causes a reddened, raw condition of the 
throat, giving rise to a feeling of dryness or of scratching, and 
known as smoker's sore throat. This irritation may extend into 
the bronchial tubes and provoke a chronic cough. 

425. The appetite may suffer and attacks of indigestion may 
occur ; a form of dyspepsia may be set up. Periods of dizzi- 
ness and oifalntness occur from time to time in those who are 
unfavorably affected by the use of tobacco. 

426. Tobacco Heart. — Numbers of smokers are compelled 
to give up the habit on account of its producing what is 
called " tobacco heart ; " this is a nervous derangement of the 
action of the heart showing itself in fluttering and palpitation, 
with too rapid and irregular action. 

427. Tobacco Blindness. — As a result of tobacco poison- 
ing, the optic nerve is sometimes affected and a form of blind- 
ness ensues. This gives rise to the same symptoms and is 
caused by the same wasting of the nerve of sight, as the blind- 
ness from the alcohol habit, which has already been de- 
scribed. 

428. Tobacco Nervousness. — Nervousness and trembling, 
frequently quite marked and noticeable, are often the con- 
sequences of smoking. 

429. Injurious Effects of Tobacco on the Young. — 
There is some controversy regarding the effects of the moder- 
ate use of tobacco upon those adults who appear to be un- 
influenced by it. The majority of authorities admit that 
many adults can use tobacco moderately without harm, and 
that others who are susceptible to the poisonous effects of this 
agent are injured by it in different ways just enumerated. 
But even those who contend that many adults are not injured 
by the moderate use of tobacco, are unanimous in stamping it 
as one of the most poisonous and injurious practices, when in- 
dulged in by young and growing persons. 

430. It checks their growth, weakens the system, and impairs 



198 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

both muscular and mental activity. Of this there can be no 
doubt. Some of the States have very wisely passed laws for- 
bidding the sale of tobacco to young people. 

431. Evils of Tobacco on the Young. — The Medical 
Record of New York, the most prominent medical journal in 
the United States, says : " The evils of tobacco are intensified 
a hundred-fold on the young. Here it is unqualifiedly and 
uniformly injurious. It stunts the growth, poisons the heart, 
impairs the mental powers, and cripples the individual in every 
way. Not that it does this to every youth, but it may be safely 
asserted that no boy of twelve or fourteen can begin the prac- 
tice of smoking without becoming physically or mentally 
injured by the time he is twenty-one. Sewer-gas is bad 
enough, but a boy had better learn his Latiu over a man-trap 
than get the habit of smoking cigarettes." 

432. Influence of Tobacco upon Muscular Strength 
and the Power of Endurance. — What has been said of the 
necessity of avoiding alcohol during the process of training 
applies with equal force to tobacco. No athlete is allowed to 
use tobacco in any form during the preparation for running, 
jumping, rowing, or other similar contests, since it interferes 
with the fullest development of muscular strength and the 
power of endurance. 

433. Cigarette Smoking. — This is probably the most in- 
jurious form of using tobacco. Cigarettes are usually made of 
the very poorest stuff. Being common and cheap, they are 
brought within the reach of boys, and in this way tobacco 
tempts and injures the young in the most insidious manner. 
While the smoker of a cigar or pipe simply draws the smoke 
into the mouth and then expels it, the cigarette smoker usu- 
ally inhales it — that is, he either voluntarily or involuntarily 
draws it into his lungs. This practice is not only irritating to 
the lungs, but it enables the air-spaces to absorb much more of 
the poisonous nicotine than when the smoke is simply drawn 
into the mouth and then puffed out. The paper with which 



NARCOTICS. 199 

cigarettes are made is another objectionable feature, its smoke 
being harsh, irritating, and poisonous, 

4;U. Other Objections to the Tobacco Habit. --The 
use of snuff is a filthy habit which is not as prevalent now as it 
used to be ; it is apt to injure the sense of smell and to keep 
the nose and throat in an irritable and unhealthy condition. 
Chewing tobacco is a disgusting habit which makes the breath 
foul, discolors the teeth, and is accompanied by the dirty prac- 
tice of spitting*. 

435. Even under the most favorable circumstances a num- 
ber of objections, based upon abuse of the sense of cleanliness, 
can be urged against smoking. The smell of tobacco-smoke 
becomes stale and clings to the hair and the clothing. The 
teeth, and frequently the fingers, become discolored. The 
breath cannot be sweet, and the atmosphere of our houses is 
more or less vitiated. To many persons the smoke of tobacco 
is offensive, and some are even made sick by it ; smokers are 
very apt to forget this and their good manners, and to subject 
such persons to great annoyance. 

436. Smoking is an Expensive Habit. — Smoking is a 
very expensive habit. It is estimated that over six hundred 
million dollars are annually expended for tobacco in the United 
States ; this is three-fifths of what drink costs, and tw T ice as 
much as is spent for meat. 



OPIUM AND MORPHINE. 

437. Opium. — Opium is the dried juice of the unripe fruit 
of the poppy plant, which is cultivated in many parts of Asia 
and especially in India. To obtain it the unripe capsule or 
seed vessel is cut into, so as to allow the milky juice to ooze 
out ; the next morning this is scraped off, placed in earthen 
vessels to harden by evaporation, and* then pressed into irregu- 
lar globular masses, known as opium. 



200 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



438. Physical Properties of Opium and Morphine. — 

Opium occurs either in the form of dark-brown, sticky masses, 
or as a brown powder. It has a peculiar smell. Its most im- 
portant active principle is morphine, which is extracted by 
means of water, and forms white crystals. Morphine produces 
the same effects as opium; it is, however, about ten times as 
strong. 




Fig. 76.— The Opium Plant. 



439. Opiates. — Any medicine which contains opium or 
some preparation of opium is known as an opiate. When the 
soluble parts of opium are dissolved in alcohol and water, 
laudanum is formed ; this. is its most common fluid preparation. 
Opium mixed with ipecac and a diluting powder constitutes 



NARCOTICS. 201 

r's powder. Paregoric, another fluid preparation, contains, 
besides opium, camphor, anise, and other ingredients. It is a 

very common method of employing an opiate, and is very often 
carelessly given to children, 
410. Effects of Opium and Morphine.— Opium is a 

powerful narcotic. In the hands of physicians of skill it is one 
of the most useful drugs which we possess. Whatever is true 
of opium is also true of morphine, which is a concentrated 
equivalent of opium producing the same effect with about one- 
tenth the dose. Opium and morphine are exceedingly useful 
in relieving pain and restlessness, and in promoting sleep ; they 
quiet the system and control spasms and convulsions ; there is 
scarcely any part of the body which cannot be favorably acted 
upon in sickness by these agents, when properly and carefully 
prescribed by a competent physician. 

441. Opium and Morphine Poisoning. — When an over- 
dose is taken, however, they act as powerful narcotic poisons. A 
great many deaths result every year from poisoning by opium 
and morphine, taken intentionally or by mistake, probably a 
greater number than from any other poison. Infants and young 
children are much more easily poisoned than older beings. 
Some persons are peculiarly affected by opium and morphine, 
so that what is a small dose for one may prove to be a large 
dose for another ; hence, even physicians have to be extremely 
careful in jjrescribing this very useful but very powerful drug. 

442. The Opium or Morphine Habit. — Everyone has 
probably heard of the opium habit, or, what is the same thing, 
the morphine habit. It is a habit people get into of taking these 
drugs whether they need them or not. Morphine and opium 
take away pain and make people sleep when they are sick and 
restless ; in such cases they do a great deal of good. But 
persons who have the morphine or opium habit do not take the 
drug for this purpose, but because they think it makes them 
feel good for the time being, and makes them forget any cares 
they may have. After the effects pass off, they feel miserable. 



202 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

The stomach is upset, they are tired and nervous, have a very 
bad headache, and often feel like vomiting. They feel so bad 
that they take more and more, until finally they keep under the 
effects of it all the time. 

443. In China, this habit is very prevalent, and it is estimated 
that over three million Chinese have the opium habit. The 
drug is imported from India and furnishes a great source of 
revenue to the English. In this country, the habit is, unfortu- 
nately, greatly on the increase ; half a million persons in the 
United States have the opium or morphine habit, notwithstand- 
ing the fact that it is forbidden by law, and that the sale of 
opium or morphine is not legal except when called for by a 
physician's prescription. 

444. The Pangs of the Opium and the Morphine 
Habit. — While under the influence of opium or morphine, the 
victim is in a sort of dreamy, drowsy condition, forgetful of all 
surroundings. As soon as the effects of the drug wear off, the 
wretched being is left in a frightful condition. He is entirely 
demoralized ; he suffers from severe headaches and neuralgias ; 
there is weakness, irritability, and restlessness ; he is troubled 
and frightened and has a feeling of intense horror. The pangs 
of this period of awakening are said to cause indescribable 
suffering, and craving for more opium and morphine becomes 
perfect torture. He cannot rest until he has obtained another 
dose. He will do an}^thing — lie, cheat, or steal — to satisfy this 
longing by securing more opium or morphine. Promises to 
reform are broken, and the firmest resolves count for nothing. 
The wretched prisoner of this habit has lost cdl power over him- 
self and all controlling influence upon his moral sense. He is 
rightfully called an "opium fiend " or a " morphine fiend" He 
knows and appreciates his calamity but cannot change it. The 
habit is one which is much more difficult to break up than is 
either alcohol or tobacco. 

445. Results of the Opium and the Morphine Habit. 
■ — The effects of the opium and the morphine habit upon health 



NARCOTICS. 203 

early show themselves. The poor wretch soon becomes 

nervous ; he cannot sleep at night ; he has no appetite ; if he 
takes any food he cannot digest and often vomits it ; lie 
becomes, thin and has a yellow complexion ; his mind changes 
and he loses his memory ; he has no longer the power to do 
right, and he is known to tell lies without hesitation, to cheat, 
and to steal, in order to get some of the drug. 

4:4:6. The quantity of the drug which it is necessary to take 
to produce the desired effect constantly becomes greater ; 
many of these unfortunates take at a single dose an amount 
which would be sufficient to kill twenty, or even fifty persons, 
who are unaccustomed to it. 

CHLORAL. 

447. Chloral, or chloral hydrate, is white in color, occurs in 
flat crystals, and is soluble in water. It is prescribed quite ex- 
tensively by physicians and is considered a valuable remedy. 
It is given to quiet the nerves, relieve restlessness, to take away 
pain, and to produce sleep. In proper cases, when prescribed 
by the doctor, these effects give it a prominent place among 
useful remedies. But unfortunately this drug has become a 
source of evil. 

448. The Chloral Habit. — People sometimes get into the 
habit of taking this medicine regularly for its peculiar effects. 
It may have been prescribed originally by the family physician 
who intended it only for temporary use. But tempted by its 
soothing effect, some persons continue to use it, and to get into 
the habit of taking it regularly to relieve paiu or to produce 
sleep, until they cannot sleep without it. They have then ac- 
quired the chloral habit. Though not as prevalent as the use 
of morphine or opium, it is nevertheless a dangerous habit. 

449. Like alcohol and narcotics in general, the dose neces- 
sary to produce the desired result constantly becomes larger 
and larger, and the longing for the drug steadily increases. 
Many persons have acquired the habit in trying to relieve the 



204 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

depressing effects of the alcohol habit, and in such cases they 
have usually merely succeeded in becoming the victims of an 
additional curse. 

450. Effects of the Chloral Habit. — In a very short 
time, the injurious effects of this drug upon the system show 
themselves. The victim becomes nervous, weak, and very much 
emaciated ; the skin is pale and yellow, he loses his appetite 
and acquires a dislike for food ; he suffers from indigestion. 
Finally he becomes a complete physical, mental, and moral wreck, 
perhaps dying in a hospital from weakness, or ending his days 
in an insane asylum. Very often, also, he takes too much of 
the drug and this leads to a fatal end. 

ABSINTHE. 

451. Absinthe is a strong alcoholic drink which is flavored 
with oil of wormwood. Its effects correspond to those of other 
alcoholic liquors, but in addition the wormwood produces very 
decided and 2^oisonous symptoms showing themselves especially 
upon the nervous system. The habit of consuming large quan- 
tities of absinthe is prevalent in France, but of late years this 
dangerous habit has travelled and has gathered in many persons 
in England and America, and it seems to be on the increase in 
this country. In addition to the effects of the alcohol, absinthe 
produces a sort of unconsciousness or dreamy state. The effects 
of the absinthe habit are very pronounced and lead to very se- 
rious injury. The victim loses all desire for food and suffers 
from dyspepsia; the tongue and mouth become dry and the 
throat irritable ; spasms of various muscles occur, and if still 
persisted in, the habit causes convulsions, often leading to pa- 
ralysis and death. 

HASHISH. 

452. Hashish, an extract derived from Indian hemp, is used 
as a narcotic by the natives of India. It produces a drowsy 
condition in which objects are seen, but seem a great distance 



NARCOTICS. 205 

off, and passed events are recollected as though they had oc- 
curred id some very remote period. Though still used by many 

natives of India, the habit does not seem to have had any charm 
for others. It is rarely met with in this country. 

CHLOROFORM. 

453. Chloroform is a remedy of incalculable beneiit. It is a 
colorless fluid having a pleasant odor. It is inhaled like ether 
for the purpose of producing unconsciousness, so that operations 
upon the body can be performed without causing any pain. It 
is also used, both externally and internally, for the relief of 
pain and spasm. Occasionally, we find individuals who have 
formed the habit of inhaling chloroform whenever they have the 
slightest pain or for the purpose of putting them to sleep. This 
practice is extremely dangerous; many of such unfortunate 
persons lose their lives from an overdose. Under no circum- 
stances can chloroform be safely used, unless given by a phy- 
sician. 

SYNOPSIS. 

Narcotics — Benumb the system ; relieve pain ; produce sleep ; pow- 
erful and dangerous. Most common narcotics are opium, 
morphine, and chloral ; also alcohol in large amount. To- 
bacco is a mild narcotic. 

Tobacco — The dried leaves of the tobacco-plant. 

1. Used by American Indians for long time previous to landing 
of Columbus. 

2. Introduced into France in 1560 ; into England, by Sir Wal- 
ter Raleigh, in 1586. 

3. Cultivated in the United States and in every other part of 
the world. 

4. The leaf must be prepared for use by drying, moistening, 
and fermenting, to bring out color and aroma. 

5. Used in smoking (cigars, cigarettes, pipe), chewing, and 
snuffing. 

6. Contains a poisonous principle called nicotine, and another 
called oil of tobacco. 



206 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

7. Effects upon the system : 

1. When first used —Dizziness, headache, perspiration, 
sickness at stomach, vomiting, faintness, and trembling. 

2. After a time tolerance is established. 

3. Quieting effect and sense of repose in some persons. 

4. On other persons, no effect, or disagreeable effect. 

5. No longer used as a medicine. 

6. Causes smokers' sore throat. 

7. Appetite suffers, dyspepsia, indigestion. 

8. Tobacco heart. 

9. Tobacco blindness. 

10. Tobacco nervousness. 

11. When used by young and growing persons : Checks 
growth, weakens system, impairs muscular and mental activ- 
ity. 

12. Diminishes muscular strength and power of endurance. 

8. Cigarette smoking especially injurious. 

9. Smoking is an uncleanly habit; hair and clothes smell of 
stale smoke ; breath offensive ; teeth soiled ; smoke is offensive 
to other persons. 

10. Chewing and snuffing very filthy. 

11. The use of tobacco is an expensive habit ; over six hundred 
million dollars spent annually in the United States. 

Opium and Morphine : 

1. Opium is the dried juice of the unripe seed-vessel of the 
poppy-plant ; comes from India and neighboring countries ; oc- 
curs in brownish mass or powder ; powerful narcotic poison. 

2. Morphine is extracted from opium ; occurs in small, white 
crystals ; has same effects as opium ; is about ten times as strong. 

3. Opiates : Medicines which contain opium. 

4. Preparations of opium : Laudanum, paregoric, Dover's pow- 
der. 

5. Effects of opium and morphine : Believe pain and restless- 
ness ; break spasms and convulsions ; produce sleep. 

6. Useful only when prescribed by a physician. 

7. Persons often acquire the habit of taking opium or morphine ; 
this habit is very injurious, and exceedingly difficult to break ; the 
health suffers very much ; the poor victims endure a miserable 
existence. 



NARCOTICS. 207 

8. Opium and morphine poisoning; very dangerous; often 
fatal. 
Chloral or Chloral Hydrate : 

1. Occurs in white crystals, soluble in water. 
•J. Quiets the nerves, relieves restlessness, takes away pain, pro- 
duces sleep. 

3. Useful drug when prescribed by the physician. 

4. The chloral habit, a dangerous habit to get into, of taking 
the drug to produce sleep ; also to relieve the depressing effects 
of the alcohol habit. 

5. Chloral habit causes nervousness, pale and yellow com- 
plexion, weakness, emaciation, indigestion, and ends in complete 
physical, mental, and moral wreck ; insanity. 

Absinthe — A strong alcoholic drink, flavored with oil of wornrwood. 

1. Effects : Those of alcohol, and in addition, poisonous effects 
of wormwood upon nervous system. 

2. Absinthe habit prevalent in France, to less extent also in 
this country. 

3. Produces sort of unconsciousness or dreamy state. 

4. Absinthe habit results in serious injury to health, and may 
lead to convulsions, paralysis, and death. 

Hashish — An extract derived from Indian hemp ; used as narcotic 
by natives of India ; not used in this country. 

Chloroform — A fluid having pleasant odor ; inhaled like ether to 
produce unconsciousness so that operations can be performed 
without causing pain ; occasionally inhaled from habit to re- 
lieve pain or produce sleep ; this practice very dangerous. 



208 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



QUESTIONS. 

1. What are narcotics ? 2. Name the narcotics most frequently 
used? 3. What is the effect of an over-dose? 4. Is tobacco a nar- 
cotic? 5. When does alcohol act as a narcotic? 6. What is to- 
bacco ? 7, Where does it grow ? 8. What is the origin of the 
name? 9. What is our earliest knowledge of tobacco? 10. When 
and by whom was it introduced into France? 11. Into Eng- 
land ? 12. How is tobacco prepared ? 13. In what different ways is 
it used ? 14. What is the composition of tobacco ? 15. Wliat are 
the effects urjon the system when first used? 16. Do these effects 
always continue? 17. What agreeable effects has tobacco upon 
some persons ? 18. Does it have such agreeable effects upon all 
persons? 19. Is it used as a medicine? 20. How is the tobacco 
habit acquired ? 21. Is it ever positively beneficial to adults ? 
22. Name some of the injurious effects upon the system ? 23. What 
is smokers' sore throat ? 24. How may the appetite and digestion 
suffer from tobacco? 25. What is tobacco heart? 26. What is to- 
bacco blindness ? 27. What is tobacco nervousness. 28. What 
are the effects of tobacco upon young and growing persons ? 
29. What effect has it upon the growth, strength, and muscular and 
mental activity of young r^eople ? 30. What influence has tobacco 
upon muscular strength and the power of endurance ? 31. Why is 
cigarette smoking especially injurious ? 32. What other objections 
are there to the tobacco habit? 33. Illustrate how expensive the to- 
bacco habit is ? 34. What is opium ? 35, What is its ajjpearance ? 
36. Where is it cultivated? 37. What is morphine? 38. From 
what is it derived ? 39. What are opiates ? 40. What is laudanum ? 
41. What is paregoric ? 42. What is Dover's powder ? 43. What 
are the effects of opium and morphine ? 44. For what purposes 
are they valuable when prescribed by the physician ? 45. What 
happens when an over-dose is taken ? 46. What is the opium habit ? 
47. What is the morphine habit ? 48. Is the opium habit common ? 
49. What effect has it ? 50. Describe the horrors of this habit. 
51. What is an " opium fiend ? " 52. What are the results of this 
habit ? 53. What is chloral or chloral hydrate ? 54. For what is it 
prescribed by physicians? 55. What are its physical properties? 
56. What effect has it upon the system ? 57. What is the chloral 



NARCOTICS. 209 

habit? 58. Bow is it acquired? 59. For what purpose do such 
persous use chloral ? GO. What are the results of the chloral habit ? 
61. What is frequently the end of this habit? 62. What is ab- 
sinthe? 63. What are its effects upon the system? 64. What is 
the absinthe habit ? 65. Where does it exist principally ? GG. What 
are the results of the absinthe habit? 67. What*is hashish? 
68. By whom is it used ? 69. What are its effects ? 70. What is 
chloroform? 71. What are its physical properties ? 72. What are 
its uses ? 73. What is the chloroform habit ? 74. Why is it dan- 
gerous ? 



210 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 




Fig. 77. — General View of the Nervous System in the Human Being. 



CHAPTER XII 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

454. Tims far the bony framework of the body and the 
muscles which cover and move the skeleton have been spoken 
of. The food and drink which man should take and what be- 
comes of this have been considered ; also how this food is di- 
gested and taken up by the blood, forming new tissues. The 
heart and the blood-vessels which convey the blood to all parts 
of the body have been described. The lungs and breathing 
and the effects of pure and impure air, have been studied. 
Finally, the necessit} T of the body's having and keeping a cer- 
tain warmth has been spoken of. 

455. These functions are found in all animals, but they are 
not peculiar to animals for they also exist in plants. The word 
function was defined to be the work which any part of the 
body does. All these different kinds of work that we have 
been studying, and which are necessary for animal life, are also 
found in plants. 

456. Similarity in the Structure of Plants and Ani- 
mals. — The plant has a framework which corresponds to our 
skeleton, though of course it is not made of lime. This can 
often be seen in leaves that have been in water a long time ; the 
soft parts have rotted away, leaving the stems and ribs of the 
leaf, as is shown in Fig. 78. In plants there is a soft, usually 
green matter to clothe this skeleton. Plants take in food and 
drink by their roots and by their leaves. They a] so breathe 
through pores in their leaves, and take in air and give it up as 
animals do. But from the air they take in the poisonous 



212 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

gases and give up pure oxygen. This is just the reverse 
of what animals do. It may be well to explain what pores 
are. They are the very small openings in the skin or in the 
coverings of leaves ; and are usually 
too small to be seen without a mi- 
croscope. 

457. Then again plants have sap, 
which serves as their blood. It is 
not of a red color as blood is, but 
like the blood in animals, it car- 
ries the nutritious juices to the 
different parts of the plant. There 
are tubes which carry the sap, 
just as blood-vessels do the blood. 
Finally, plants have a certain 
warmth of their own, just as ani- 
mals have ; not so great as in ani- 
mals, but if many plants are placed 
in a closed room, the air in this 
room after a time becomes com- 
paratively warm. 

458 Absence of Nervous Fia 78 -— The skeleton of a Leaf. 

<±DO. MUbenue UT merVUUb After long-continued soaking in water, 

System in PlantS.— Thus it Will the soft part of the leaf has been re- 

J moved, leaving the woody portion 

be Seen that plants have all the Joking the framework, which gives the 

1 leaf its shape and strength. 

parts and the same functions that 

have been described in animals thus far. But now w T ill be 
considered certain parts in animals which plants do not possess, 
the first and most important of which is the Nervous System. 
Let us first see what is meant by the word system. It is a 
collection of tissues of the same kind. So that nervous system 
is a collection of nerves, or in other words, all the nerves of 
the body taken together are called the nervous system; all 
the arteries taken together would be called the arterial sys- 
tem. All the muscles of the body are called the muscular sys- 
tem. 




THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 213 

459. Most Perfect Nervous System in Man. — The 
nervous system is something peculiar to animals and does not 
exist in plants. In animals there is a great difference in regard 
to how perfect this nervous system is. The higher the form of 
the animal, the more perfect is its nervous system. Man being 
the highest form of animal, his nervous system is much more 
developed than in any other animal. In some of the lowest 
animals it is very imperfect indeed. In other functions, such 
as respiration, circulation, and digestion, there are many classes 
of animals which are the equals of man ; but in the development 
of his nervous system man stands far ahead of all others. 

460. Function of the Nervous System. — The nervous 
system gives us information of the condition of the body and 
of what is going on around us, so that we can do what is best 
and avoid danger. It is also the work of the nervous system 
to connect the different organs of the body so that they will work 
in harmony. If it were not for the nervous system we should 
constantly be in clanger of losing our lives. It enables us to 
feel, think, see, hear, etc., and in this way we avoid injury. 
When a large number of persons are working separately there 
must always be a head or chief to direct them. Imagine what 
disorder there would be in the class-room if every pupil did as 
he or she wished and there were no teacher. Think of an army 
of soldiers over which there was no general, and every soldier 
did as he wished ; how dreadful the confusion would be ! In 
the same way there would be great disorder among the organs 
of our bodies if there was not something to connect them 
and to direct their work"; this is done through the nervous 
system. 

461. Divisions of the Nervous System. — We can divide 
the nervous system into certain parts, and these parts are all 
connected. We separate them only for the purpose of study. 

462. There is first the brain, the head or chief that superin- 
tends the entire work of the system, just as the superintendent 
of a railroad manages the running of all the trains. The brain 



214 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

is placed in a rounded, bony box made by the bones of the 
skull, called the cranium. 

463. Next there is the spinal cord, which is still very im- 
portant, though not so important as the brain. It is a sort of 
assistant to the brain, relieving it of a good deal of work, and 
also doing some work which the brain does not do. The spinal 
cord runs in the canal or tunnel which is in the back part of 
the spinal vertebrae. 

464. Finally, there are the nerves. These are sent out from 
the brain and from the spinal cord to different parts of the 
body ; and they also run in the opposite direction- — from the 
various parts of the body to the brain and spinal cord. They 
are the messengers, or the telegraph wires, so to speak, which 
carry the wishes of the brain to the different parts of the body ; 
and they also carry messages from the different parts of the 
body to the brain. These different parts of the nervous system 
are illustrated in Figs. 77 and 83. 

465. Examples of the Action of the Nervous System. 
— The uses of the nervous system can best be understood by a 
few examples. Suppose a man is walking along the street and 
is about to cross the car-track. His ear hears the jingle of the 
bells and by means of a nerve sends a message to the brain ; 
the brain then sends an order along the nerves of the eyes to 
these organs to look in the direction in which the ear has heard 
the sound and to see whether a car is approaching. The eyes 
obey the orders of the brain and look and see the car very near, 
and also perceive that the person is in danger of being run 
over. They immediately send back word to the brain about 
this danger. Then the brain sends word to the muscles which 
move his legs ; this message is also transmitted by nerves ; it 
tells these muscles to act immediately. The result is that they 
obey ; he quickens his steps and thus escapes the coming 
car. 

466. Let us take another example. Suppose it is time for 
the noon recess ; you have taken your breakfast early in the 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 215 

morning and have had no food since. The stomach sends a 
iage to the brain lliat it has been empty for sometime; 
and tike tissues also send messages by numerous nerves that 
they would like more nourishment since they have exhausted 
all that the blood had to give them. Upon receiving these 
messages, which, in short, mean that you are hungry, the brain 
gives out its orders. It directs the legs to carry you home as 
soon as school is dismissed ; it directs them to take you to 
the dining-room and to seat you at the table ; it directs the 
eyes to look at the food and see whether it is wholesome ; it 
orders the hands to seize knife and fork and to convey food 
to the mouth ; the jaws are directed to chew it, the throat 
to swallow it and the stomach to digest it. All this the brain 
does. 

467. Rapidity of Action of the Nervous System. —It 
has taken a little while to describe these two examples of the 
manner in which the nervous system acts, but it must not be 
imagined from this that so much time is consumed. All these 
messages are sent back and forth with lightning-like rapidity, 
and it takes only a very small part of a second for a message to 
travel from the tip of the ringer to the brain and back again. 

THE BRAIN. 

468. Coverings. — The brain is a large, rounded mass of 
soft nervous tissue which is contained in the oval box of bones 
formed by the skull. These flat bones which cover it protect 
it from injury. Besides these, it is covered on the inside of the 
skull by three membranes or sheets of tissue ; and it is therefore 
very well protected. 

469. Size and Weight of the Brain.— The brain is about 
eight inches long. If looked at from above (Fig. 79) it appears 
hemispherical ; if viewed on its under surface (Fig. 80) it is flat. 
It weighs about forty-seven ounces — about three pounds on the 
average. The brain of a man is larger and weighs more than 



216 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



that of a woman. It was formerly thought that highly educated 
persons had very heavy brains, but this is not so in every case. 
It is true in certain cases, however, for the brain of Daniel 
Webster weighed sixty-three ounces. On the other hand, the 
brain of Gambetta, who was one of the brightest statesmen 




Fig. 79.— The Brain, Upper Surface. 



France ever had, was said to weigh only thirty-five ounces. So 
that there are exceptions to this opinion. However, the brains 
of idiots are always small and light in weight. It will be ex- 
plained further on in what way the brain of a very intelligent 
man differs from that of an idiot. The human brain is heavier 
than that of any other animal except the whale and the ele* 
phant. 



THE N EttVOUS SYSTEM. 



217 



470. Divisions of the Brain. — The brain is divided into 
three parts : First, the large, round mass called the cerebrum^ 
which you Bee when you look at it from above, and which 

forms about seven-eighths of the entire brain (Figs. 79, 80, 
81, and 83). 




Fig. 80.— The Brain, Lower Surface. 



471. Then beneath the cerebrum, at the back part, is the 
cerebellum, or little brain, a smaller portion, looking like two 
pouches, and forming only one-eighth of the entire brain (Figs. 
80, 81, and 83). 

472. Third, there is the portion, called the medulla, which is 
a sort of bridge between the brain and spinal cord (Figs. 81 
and 83). 



218 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



473. The Cerebrum. — As already stated, tins is the main 
part of the brain. If you look at it from above you will see 
that it dips in along the centre, and you will find this cleft 
to be quite deep, separating the brain into two halves, called 
the hemispheres — a very appropriate name. The surface of the 
cerebrum is very uneven, due to the fact that it is covered by 
a great many winding elevations, between which the surface 




Fig. 81.— The Brain, Looked at from the Side, Showing Very Nicely the Divisions of the 
Brain. The large mass above is the cerebrum ; the smaller portion, below and behind, is 
the cerebellum. From the cerebrum above, a cylindrical portion is seen passing directly 
downward to the end of the illustration below ; this is the medulla. The cerebellum is seen 
to be connected with its upper and back part. 



dips in about an inch. In a person whose brain is very much 
developed and who is very bright, these elevations are very 
winding and complex, and between them the brain matter dips 
in very much ; while in the lower animals the elevations are 
quite straight and simple, and there is very little dipping in 
between them. 

474 Gray and White Parts of the Cerebrum.— On the 
outside the cerebrum is gray, but internally it is white. The 



THE N ERVOUS SYSTEM. 



219 



gray part consists of cells, that is, small bodies with a number 
of branches given off from them, which connect with the nerve- 
fibres. The interior of the cerebrum is white, and is formed 

by millions of nerve-fibres (Fig. 

82). 

475. The Cerebellum. — 

This, like the cerebrum, is gray 
on the outside and white within. 
It is much smaller than the ce- 
rebrum, and is placed behind 
and below it, being covered up 
by it (Figs. 81 and 83). 

476. The Medulla (Figs. 81 
and 83) serves to connect the 
brain with the spinal cord. It 
is very important. There is one 
part of it to which any injury 
will produce instant death. 

477. The Cranial Nerves. 
—-What is a nerve ? A nerve 
is a collection of nerve-fibres 
forming a small cord. These 
nerve-fibres are very small, and 

can be seen only with the microscope. But when a great many 
of them run. alongside of each other they are joined into a 
bundle, and this we call a nerve. Some nerves are very large 
and others quite small. At the ends, where they pass to the 
tissues, they are very small indeed. 

478. The brain gives off twelve sets of nerves, and these all 
pass to the tissues of the head and face. They are important, 
for among them are the nerves of smell, taste, sight, and hear- 
ing. There are small holes in the bones of the skull by which 
these nerves pass out. It has already been stated that the 
cranium is the bony box in which the brain is contained ; 
hence these nerves are called cranial, because they come from 




Fig. 82.— A Portion of the Cerebrum 
Cut Across, Showing the Gray Border on 
the Outside and the White Matter Within. 



220 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

this bony box. They are arranged in pairs, one behind the 
other ; on which account they are often called in numerical 
order, first, second, third, etc. 

479. Functions of the Brain. — The brain is the seat of the 
mind, of the will, of thought, of memory, and of intelligence. It 
is through the brain that we are rendered superior to the lower 
animals. The lower animals accomplish different actions 
through what we call instinct, that is, without the action of 
the mind. But we can do many more things than they, and 
more difficult acts, because our brains are more developed. 

480. Let us examine the work of the brain and see what it 
does for us : In the first place, it is where the will exists ; it is 
where our desires come from. Then as to memory, it is the 
brain which enables us to think about things and to remember 
names, figures, faces, and all other things. Imagine how useful 
this is and how difficult it would be to get along without it ! 
Think also of the wonderful action of the brain when it is pos- 
sible to remember things all our lives ! 

481. The brain gives us reason, so that when we see a thing 
we know what it means and whether it is important or not. It 
gives us judgment which enables us to do the right thing in 
order to accomplish what we want. 

482. Intelligence has its seat in the brain. This prevents 
us from being stupid ; and enables us to understand things and 
to express ourselves just as we wish by language. It enables 
us to see the difference between right and wrong, so as to avoid 
the latter. 

483. Training of the Brain. — Much of our memory and 
intelligence depends upon the way in which our brain is trained. 
If we use our brain a great deal, it will become better than if 
we allow it to remain idle. Many things which we study at 
school are taught us for the purpose of training the brain. We 
should remember that we cannot think of more than one thing 
at a time. When you study your lessons, you should not think 
of play ; and when you play, you should enjoy yourself, and 



TIIK NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



221 




Fig. 83.— The Erain and Spinal Cord, with the Spinal Nerves Issuing from the Latter. 



222 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

need not think of your studies. There is a time for play and a 
time for study. 



THE SPINAL CORD. 



484. The spinal cord is the soft bar of nerve-tissue which 
runs down from the brain through the canal of the backbone. 
In adults it is about as thick as the thumb. Besides being 
protected by bone , it has, like the brain, a covering of three 
membranes. While the spinal cord is not so important a 
part of the nervous system as the brain is, it is still very 
important, especially that part which runs through the neck. 
One sometimes hears of people falling down stairs and break- 
ing their neck. What is meant by this is that this upper 
part of the spinal cord is broken across and death occurs im- 
mediately. 

485. If the spinal cord be sliced crosswise it would be seen 
that although it is white on the outside, it is gray on the in* 
side. This gray matter in the 
interior is arranged in a pe- 
culiar manner, resembling two 
crescents joined together, as is 
shown in Fig. 84. As in the 
brain, this gray part is formed 
of cells, while the white portion 
consists of nerve-fibres. 

486. Spinal Nerves-— The 

r Fig. 84.— A Portion of the Spmal Cord 

nerves which leave the brain are CutAcross, showing the Gray crescents in 

the Interior, Surrounded by the White 

called cranial nerves ; and those Nerve Material, 
which leave the spinal cord are called, in the same way, spinal 
nerves. There are thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves ; and they 
are connected to the side of the spinal cord in a line. Each 
nerve when it leaves the spinal cord consists of two parts, 
one in front and the other behind ; but these two portions 
soon unite to form a single nerve. 




THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 



223 



487. Kinds of Nerves. — There are two kinds of nerves — 
the nerves of sensation and the nerves of motion. The nerves 
of sensation are those which give feeling to different 
parts of the body and especially to the skin. When 
you cut or burn yourself it is a nerve of sensation 
which carries the message of pain to the brain. 
The nerves of motion are those nerves which go to 
the different muscles and cause them to act when 
the brain wishes it. 

488. Functions of the Spinal Cord-— The 
spinal cord is a sort of agent or assistant to the brain, 
and it also serves to carry the large number of 
nerve-fibres which leave the brain, travel through 
the spinal cord and then to the limbs. But besides 
this, the spinal cord has a very important use. 
When the brain is engaged at something else, the 
spinal cord takes its place, and acts for it if any oc- 
casion arises. 

489. Reflex Action. — This action without the 
jtove* 8 vwy knowledge of the brain is called reflex action, and 
Sffed y show- *' * s ^ ne spinal cord which carries it out. Let us 
Mfcte°u ^of ^ a ^ e a ^ ew exam pl es °f reflex action : Suppose you 
Numerous want to £>o to school in the morning. Your brain 

Nerve-fibres. ° ° 

directs the muscles of your low r er limbs to move in 
such a manner that you walk. But after you have started 
walking, you do not need to think about it ; perhaps you reach 
school and have crossed many streets and have turned many 
corners without knowing it. It was the spinal cord which 
looked out for all this. 

490. If a fly alights upon your face, you put up your hand 
to brush it off, without really thinking of it. This is another 
example. 

491. During sleep, reflex action is shown very well. If you 
tickle the feet of anyone who is asleep, he will draw up his 
lower limbs so as to draw them away ; all of which will be done 



224 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

without his waking. It is the spinal cord which looks after this. 
In the same way, if you walk along, thinking of something else, 
and suddenly some one appears before you and makes a motion 
as though to strike you, you will draw up your arm to protect 
yourself before you can realize that anyone is there. If some 
one makes believe striking you in the face, you cannot help 
closing your eyes, and you cannot keep them open even if you 
want to. This is reflex action. It is also reflex action which 
explains how it is that a chicken can run around after its head 
is chopped off. 

492. Sleep. — Sleep is the natural rest of the brain. Just as 
every other part of the body needs rest during each twenty-four 
hours, so does the brain. In fact, many other parts of the body 
can exist longer without rest than can the brain. We may 
rest any other part of the body without sleep ; but the only 
sign that the brain is resting completely, and is not active, is 
sleep. 

493. The Amount of Sleep which is necessary varies 
with different people. Men who think a great deal require 
more than those who do bodily work. The average deep neces- 
sary for a man is from seven to eight hours. 

494. Children require more Sleep and should have 
nine or ten hours, for while the body is growing rapidly more 
rest is needed. 

495. Uses of Sleep. — During sleep the brain and all other 
parts of the body rest and regain the strength which they have 
lost by the day's work. 

496. Time for Sleep- — Night is the time for sleep. Per- 
sons who work at night and sleep by day are not usually quite 
so bright and healthy as those who sleep during the natural 
time. Young people who dance all night and then sleep by 
day to make up for it, soon look pale and tired out, and often 
weaken their bodies so much that they become sick. The 
proper time for children to go to bed is from eight to nine 
o'clock, and they should then rise at six or seven. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 225 

497. Nervousness. — We often Lear people say they are 
nervous. By this they mean that their nervous system is out 
of order. They start at the least noise, and become^ross and 
irritable, while the rest of the body suffers. Nervousness is 
often due to too little sleep or too much excitement. Very 
often, too, it is due to indigestion, or to coffee, tea, or tobacco, 
or alcoholic drinks. When we are nervous we are apt to do 
things in haste, and are apt to talk in a cross manner and to get 
angry easily. 

498. Wakefulness. — When unable to sleep at night, we are 
said to suffer from sleeplessness or wakefulness. Lying awake 
at night when all is quiet and everyone else is asleep is very 
annoying. Not only does the body remain tired after the day's 
work, but the person becomes worried and cross because he 
cannot sleep. There are, of course, many causes of sleepless- 
ness, but some of the most common are laziness, coffee, tea, and 
tobacco. It is quite natural for us to feel somewhat tired at 
night, and then we have no trouble in falling asleep ; but if we 
are idle all day long, we do not feel tired, and on this account 
we may find it hard to fall asleep. Coffee, tea, and tobacco ex- 
cite the nervous system, and on this account may prevent sleep. 

499. Effects of Alcohol upon the Nervous System.— 
The nervous system has no greater enemy than alcohol. Every 
part of the nervous system — the brain, the spinal cord, and the 
nerves — suffers when a quantity of alcoholic drink is taken. 
The brain becomes affected very soon. If a large quantity is 
taken at one time and the person becomes intoxicated, he be- 
comes stupid in his intelligence, but excited in other ways — he 
sings, or cries, or begins to laugh like a fool, or begins to scold, 
and often fights. He forgets that he is a human being and acts 
like a brute. He is unable to walk straight and staggers along 
in a pitiable way, catching on to lamp-posts or any other place 
for support. The effect upon the nerves is shown by the way 
every part of his body trembles, and by his great unsteadiness. 
A drunken man is a disgusting sight ! If his drunkenness be 



226 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

repeated many times and becomes a habit, the memory begins 
to fail, the person becomes bloated and fat, but very weak, his 
health fails, his hands tremble, his eyes and nose are constantly 
bloodshot, he becomes dirty and careless, and the individual 
changes into a good-for-nothing. 

500. Delirium Tremens. — As a result of drunkenness 
there is often produced a disease of the nerves called delirium 
tremens. This means that the person is out of his mind and 
has trembling of the body. It is a condition which kills many 
men, and which is dangerous to the drunkard, because he gets 
out of his mind and tries to do all sorts of violent things, espe- 
cially to jump out of the window. He imagines that he sees 
animals, such as mice, rats, and snakes, and he thinks these are 
chasing him, and he wants to run away. It is difficult to keep 
him quiet. The whole body trembles from the poisonous ef- 
fects of the alcohol. The heart is often weakened so much 
that the person dies because this organ has become too weak. 

501. Effects of Tobacco upon the Nervous System- — 
This shows itself chiefly by the trembling hands and the ner- 
vousness which we often notice in people who smoke a great 
deal. Many persons, especially young men, cannot smoke at all 
wdthout nervousness. 

502. Effects of Coffee and Tea upon the Nervous 
System- — Coffee and tea excite the nervous system. They 
are often the cause of nervousness and trembling ; also of pal- 
pitation of the heart, which is a form of nervousness. Children 
should not drink coffee or tea, as they do not need any stimu- 
lants. 

503. The Sympathetic System of Nerves.— Besides the 
great nervous system to which this chapter has been devoted, 
there is a smaller collection of nerves, which is known as the 
sympathetic system. Along the front of the backbone are found 
two nerves, with many knob-like enlargements at numerous 
points. This is the central part of the sympathetic system, 
from which the branches of this system are given off. Unlike 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 227 

the nerves of the general nervous system, which pass to the 
outside of the body and to parts which are subject to our will, 
the branches of the sympathetic system pass to the internal 
organs which cannot be controlled by our will, and which are 
therefore called involuntary. The sympathetic system serves 
to connect the internal organs so as to make them act in har- 
mony. 

SYNOPSIS. 

The Nervous System : 

1. Present in animals, but not in plants. 

2. Functions : 

a. To give information in regard to the condition of va- 
rious parts of the body. 

b. To give information of what is going on around us, so 
that we can act accordingly, and can avoid danger. 

c. To connect the different organs of the body, so that 
they can act in harmony. 

3. Divisions : 

a. The general nervous system ; nerves passing to ex- 
ternal parts, and those controlled by our will. 

b. The sympathetic nervous system ; main part arranged 
in two chains, with knob-like enlargements along the front 
of the vertebral column ; from these branches are given 
off; branches pass to internal organs which are not under 
control of the will — involuntary. 

The General Nervous System : 
Divisions : 

A. Brain : 

1. Coverings : 

a. Membranes. 

b. Bones forming cranium. 

2. Shape — hemispherical. 

3. Size — about eight inches long. 

4. Weight — a. Average about forty-seven ounces. 

b. Heavier in man than in woman. 

c. Very light in idiots. 



228 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

d. Weighs more in man than in any other ani- 
mal, except the whale and elephant. 

e. In some cases, weight is proportionate to in- 
telligence. 

5. Gives off the cranial nerves. 

6. Natural rest — Sleep : 

a. Necessary amount varies. 

b. Hard work necessitates more. 

c. Average for man, seven to eight hours. 

d. Children require more, nine to ten hours. 

e. Use, to give body, and especially brain, a 
complete rest. 

/. Proper time, at night. 

g. Disordered sleep — wakefulness — may be due 
to laziness, tea, coffee, or tobacco. 

7. Divisions: 

a. Cerebrum : 

1. Largest part of brain (seven-eighths). 

2. Large, round mass. 

3. Divided into halves, called hemispheres. 

4. Surface uneven, owing to winding eleva- 
tions, between which the surface dips in. 

5. The height of these elevations and de- 
pressions is proportionate to the intelligence. 

6. Exterior gray and formed largely of 
cells. 

7. Interior white, and formed entirely of 
nerve-fibres. 

8. Controls mind, will, thought, memory, 
and intelligence. 

9. Gives reason and judgment, elevating 
man above the lower animals. 

10. Admits of training. 
h. Cerebellum, or little brain. 

1. Much smaller than cerebrum. 

2. Forms one-eighth entire brain. 

3. Forms lower and hind part of brain. 

4. Like cerebrum, is gray on outside and 
white within. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 229 

c. Medulla: 

1. Connection between brain and spinal cord. 

2. Very important part, since injury to one 
portion causes instant death. 

B. Spinal Cord: 

1. Long bar of nerve-tissue. 

2. Protected by : a, membranes. 

&, bones forming vertebral column. 

3. Interior formed of gray matter, arranged in cres- 
cents, and composed largely of cells. 

4. Outside is white and formed of nerve-fibres. 

5. Gives off the spinal nerves. 

6. Acts as an agent or assistant to the brain. 

7. Controls reflex action — action without the knowl- 
edge of the brain, serving to protect us from injury. 

C. Nerves : 

Divisions : 

1. According to action : a, sensation ; b, motion. 

(1.) Nerves of sensation, carrying impres- 
sions of feeling, such as pain, etc., from the 
surface to the brain and spinal cord. 

(2.) Nerves of motion, carrying messages 
from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles, 
and causing these to act. 

2. According to source : a, cranial ; b, spinal. 

(1.) Cranial nerves, twelve pairs, pass from 
brain, through openings in bone, to various 
parts of the head and neck. 

(2.) Spinal nerves, thirty-one pairs, emerge 
from spinal cord by two roots, which soon join 
together, pass to different parts of the trunk 
and limbs. 
Disorders of the Nervous System, due to : 

1. Coffee and Tea: 

a. Often excite nervousness, trembling, etc. 

b. Children should not be allowed any. 

2. Tobacco — Often causes nervousness, trembling, etc. 

3. Alcoholic Excess : 

a. Great enemy to nervous system. 



230 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

b. Stupefies intelligence. 

c. Excites brain in undesirable ways, such as fighting, 
etc. 

d. Causes trembling and staggering. 

e. Other effects on rest of system. 

/. Delirium tremens — Kesult of drunkenness, person out 

of mind ; great trembling ; person violent, often wishing to 

jump from window ; person imagines he sees enemies, mice, 

rats, snakes, etc. ; heart often seriously weakened, and may 

die from this cause. 

The Sympathetic Nervous System — Smaller than general nervous 

system — Central or main part extends along the front of spinal 

column — Branches pass to internal, involuntary organs. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. What different parts are found in plants as well as in animals? 
2. What is the skeleton of a leaf ? 3. Do plants take in food and 
drink? 4. How? 5. How do plants breathe ? 6. What difference 
is there in the breathing of plants and of animals ? 7. What are 
pores? 8. What fluid is there in plants corresponding to the blood 
of animals? 9. How is the sap carried along? 10. Do plants have 
any warmth of their own ? 11. How can you prove this ? 12. What 
part of animals is absent in plants ? 13. What is a system ? 14. Give 
an example. 15. Does the nervous system exist in plants ? 16. In 
what animal is there the highest form of nervous system ? 17. What 
is the function of the nervous system ? 18. What might happen if 
we did not have a nervous system ? 19. Give an example to show 
that there must be a chief to everything where there are many parts. 
20. Into what parts can we divide the nervous system ? 21. What is 
the office of the brain ? 22. What of the spinal cord? 23. What of 
the nerves ? 24. Give an example of the action of the nervous sys- 
tem. 25. Does it take the nervous system a long time to act ? 26. 
Give an example to show how quickly it acts. 27. Where is the 
brain situated? 28. What protects it? 29. Is it soft or hard? 30. 
What is its form? 31. What is its size? 32. What is its weight? 
33. Is it heavier in man or in woman ? 34. Does its weight depend 
upon the intelligence of the person? 35. Give examples. 36. What 
can you say about the brains of idiots ? 37. Into what parts can the 
brain be divided ? 38. Where is the cerebrum ? 39. What are the 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 231 

hemispheres? 40. What can you say about the surface of the cere- 
brum? 41. What is peculiar about the surface of the cerebrum in very 
intelligent persons? 42. How is it different in the lower animals? 
43. What is the color of the cerebrum on the exterior? 44. What is 
the color of the interior ? 45. Of what does the gray matter consist ? 
46. Of what does the white matter consist ? 47. Describe the cere- 
bellum. 48. Describe the medulla. 49. Why is it very important ? 
50. What is a nerve? 51. Where are the cranial nerves ? 52. To 
what are they attached ? 53. Name the functions of the brain. 54. 
What is meant by doing things "by instinct?" 55. Where does 
the will exist ? 56. What is meant by memory ? 57. What is intel- 
ligence ? 58. What is reason ? 59. What is judgment ? 60. How 
can we train the brain ? 61. What is the spinal cord ? 62. How is 
it protected ? 63. What is meant by " breaking the neck ? " 64. 
Of what is the spinal cord formed? 65. How does it look inside ? 
6(j. What are the spinal nerves ? 67. How many are there ? 68. 
How do they leave the spinal cord ? 69. What two kinds of nerves 
are there? 70. What are the functions of the spinal cord? 71. 
What is reflex action? 72. Give an example of reflex action. 73. 
Of what use is reflex action? 74. What is sleep? 75. How must 
the brain be rested? 76. What is the average amount of sleep re- 
quired for a man? 77. How much for a child? 78. What are the 
uses of sleep? 79. What is the proper time for sleep ? 80. When 
should children goto bed? 81. When should they rise ? 82. What 
is nervousness? 83. What is nervousness due to? 84. What is 
wakefulness? 85. What are some of the most common causes? 86. 
Is it natural for us to feel a little tired at night ? 87. Why can some 
persons who are idle all day long not sleep at night ? 88. How do 
coffee, tea, and tobacco act on the nervous system ? 89. What effect 
has alcohol upon the nervous system ? 90. How is the brain affected 
in drunkenness ? 91. Name some of the disgusting actions of the 
drunkard. 92. How are the nerves affected ? 93. What are the ef- 
fects of repeated drunkenness ? 94. What is delirium tremens ? 95. 
What are the symptoms of delirium tremens? 96. What effect has 
tobacco on the nervous system ? 97. What effect have coffee and 
tea on the nervous system ? 98. What is the sympathetic system of 
nerves? 99. What is the function of the sympathetic system? 
100. What is its arrangement? 101. To what parts is the sympa- 
thetic system distributed ? 



CHAPTER XIII. 

THE SENSES. 

504. There are certain organs in the body which add a great 
deal to our comfort and enjoyment and give us knowledge and 
pleasure. The functions of these organs are called the senses. 
There are five of them. 

1. Touch — The skin. 

2. Taste — The tongue. 

3. Smell — The nose. 

4. Sight— The eye. 

5. Hearing. — The ear. 

505. Special Senses. — They are often called the special 
senses because each one has a special duty to perform and can- 
not be used for anything else ; as, for instance, bur eyes can be 
used for seeing only. The skin is the only one of these organs 
which is necessary to life ; and it is an organ of general rather 
than of special sense. 

THE SENSE OF TOUCH— THE SKIN. 

506. Thickness. — The skin forms a soft, elastic layer which 
covers the entire body. It is not of the same thickness in all 
places. It is thick at certain places where the body is very 
much exposed or where there is much friction, as in the palms 
of the hands and the soles of the feet. In other places which 
are more protected, it is quite thin ; as, for instance, the inner 
side of the arm. 

507. Uses of the Skin. — As has already been stated, the 
skin is necessary to life. In certain accidents, in which a per- 



THE SEN8E8. 233 

son has burnt or scalded himself severely, he may die because 
too much of the skin has been lost. There are four principal 
of the skin : (1) As a protection to the entire body ; (2) 
as the organ of sensation or feeling ; (3) to throw off w<iI<t, 
salts, and poisonous matter from the body ; (4) to regulate the 
bodily warmth. 

508. The Skin as the Organ of Sensation or Feeling. 
— The nerves of sensation or feeling end in the skin in little 
knobs, which are the portions with which we feel the different 
sensations, such as heat, cold, smoothness, roughness, pain, etc. 
Some parts of the body are more sensitive than others. This 
is because they have a greater supply of these nerves. These 
same nerves also give rise to pain, which is useful, as it pro- 
tects the body, and tells you when to be careful. If you are 
holding a lighted match in your fingers, you will drop it as 
soon as it burns down to your finger-tips because there is pain. 
If there were no pain to warn you, the ends of the fingers might 
have been burnt off before you were aware of it. With these 
nerves we are enabled to feel whether anything is smooth or 
rough, sharp or dull, cold or warm, soft or hard. The finger- 
tips are intended as the organs of touch. In the blind, the 
sense of touch becomes very much developed, and such persons 
can be trained to do wonderful things by means of the fingers. 
The books of the blind are printed with letters which are slightly 
raised ; and it is marvellous how quickly they can spell the 
words by means of their fingers. - 

509. Throwing off Water, Salts, and Poisonous Mat- 
ters. — This is a very important use of the skin. If an animal 
were to be covered with paint or varnish so as to close all the 
pores, death would result in a short time. 

510. Regulating the Bodily Warmth.— The skin serves 
an important purpose in regulating the bodily warmth. It 
does this by increasing or diminishing the amount of perspira- 
tion, thus cooling the body in summer by permitting free 
perspiration. 



234 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 




511. Structure of the Skiru — The skin is formed of two 
layers (Fig. 86). The outside layer is called the scarf skin, the 
deeper one the true skin, 

512. The scarf skin is formed 
of a great many scales or flat 
cells covering each other ; and 
these cells are being constantly 
rubbed away and cast off, and are 
then replaced by new ones. In 
taking a bath, for instance, it will 
be noticed that in drying a little 
of the skin comes off. This mate- 
rial is formed of the dead cells 
which are cast off. The scarf 
skin of the scalp is often cast off 
in small scales which we call dan- 
druff '. This throwing off of these 

„ , , . „ . .. n Fig. 86.— A Piece of Skin as Seen Under 

SCaleS from the Skill OI the DOdy the Microscope, d, The layers of flat cells 

. , , n ji i> ~i • forming upper layer of the scarf skin; c, 

takes place all the time and IS deeper layer of scarf skin ; 6, projections 

. , T i j.1 i? of true skin. 

natural. In snakes the scan 

skin is thrown off in one piece and forms the very pretty tubes 

sometimes found in the fields. 

513. The true skin is the part which contains the blood-ves- 
sels and the nerves ; also the roots of the hair, the perspiration 
tubes, and the oil tubes. If you burn yourself, a blister forms, 
which separates the scarf skin from the true skin ; if you lift 
up the blister, the red part you see underneath is the true 
skin. The true skin is not perfectly smooth, but has a number 
of small projections upon it. But these do not appear on the 
surface of the skin because the cells of the scarf skin fill out 
the uneven places (Fig. 86). 

514. Color of the Skin. — The skin is colored differently 
in different parts of the body. It is darker, for instance, on 
the back of the hand than on the arm. Some persons have very 
light-colored skin and are said to have a fair complexion, and 



THE SENSES. 235 

these usually have blonde hair. Others have dark complexions 
and usually have hair of a dark shade. In the negro, the skin 
is dark brown. This difference in the color of the skin depends 
upon the amount of coloring matter which is found in the true 
skin. In white people there is very little of this, in the negro 
there is a great deal of it in the form of small dark brown grains. 

515. If you look at the skin of the palms of the hands, espe- 
cially at the finger tips, you will see fine lines arranged in cir- 
cles. If you examine these with a magnifying glass it will be 
seen that the lines are raised, and it is here that the nerves of 
feeling end in great numbers. 

516. Attachments of the Skin- — Upon examining the 
skin, we find in it, or attached to it, certain parts : Perspira- 
tion tubes, oil tubes, hairs, and, in certain parts, nails. 

517. The Perspiration Tubes B — These are the small tubes 
in the skin, which give off the perspiration. There are a great 
many of them. Where they open upon the skin there is a 
small space called &pore. There are thousands of these pores 
in the space of every inch of the skin. This shows the necessity 
of keeping the body clean, so that the pores remain open, for 
otherwise the perspiration cannot escape. The perspiration 
tubes open upon the surface of the skin ; below, they com- 
mence by a series of windings in the deeper parts of the skin, 
as is shown in Fig. 87. 

518. The Perspiration. — Perspiration is constantly being- 
given off from the body, day and night. Most of the time, 
especially when the weather is cool, it is invisible, and hence is 
called insensible perspiration. But if more than the usual 
amount is given off from the skin, the perspiration collects in 
drops and is called sensible perspiration. This occurs in sum- 
mer and at other seasons of the year when we become over- 
heated or work hard. Perspiration consists largely of water ; 
and in the water certain mineral salts and certain poisonous 
matters which it is necessary for the body to cast off are dis- 
solved. 



236 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



519. Uses of the Perspiration.— It has just been stated 

that the perspiration takes from the body water, salts, and poison- 
ous matters. Even when the weather is cold and perspiration 
is insensible, about a pint of water leaves the 
body daily by the skin ; and in summer much 
more than this escapes. This will give an 
idea how many of these perspiration tubes 
there must be and how active they must be. 
Perspiration is also very important because 
it cools off the body, as has already been de- 
scribed in the chapter on The Heat of the 
Body. 

520. The Oil Tubes- — Besides the per- 
spiration tubes, there are others which run 
through the skin and open on or near its sur- 
face, usually where there is hair (Fig. 88). . 
These tubes give off a certain oily substance 
which keeps the skin soft and movable, with- 
out which the skin would get dry and cracked. fig. 87.— One of the 

rm • t i Perspiratory Tubes. 

This oily matter also serves to keep the hair (Greatly magnified.) 

The tube is seen to 

glossy and soft ; and we find the greatest num- pass through the en- 

tirs fctiiolcnpss of tliQ 

ber of oil tubes where there is hair. It is to skin, through its dif- 
remove the oily matter which has become stale 
that we need soap in washing. Sometimes there is too much 
of this oily matter and then the skin has a greasy look, such as 
we often see on the forehead and nose. Sometimes these oil 
tubes become stopped up by a little dirt ; and as a result the 
oily matter is kept in and we see a black spot on the nose or 
forehead. This is often called a worm, but it is no worm, but 
simply the oily matter which cannot escape because the open- 
ing of its tube has become clogged up. 

521. The Hair. — If a hair be examined it will be found 
that one end is pointed, while the other, which was attached 
to the skin, has a white knob, called its root, and it is through 
this that it is fastened to the skin (Fig. 88). The hair is not 




THE SENSES. 237 

solid but is a tube, and has a canal in its centre filled with a 

soft material. Deep in the skin there are small cup-like spaces 
into which the root of the hair tits and is attached. Hair 
differs very much in color, and this is because there is a differ- 
ence in the amount of the coloring substance present in differ- 
ent cases. 

522. The Nails. — At the end of the lingers and toes are 
the nails. They are hard and horny and serve to protect the 
linger tips and give them firmness. In front they have no feel- 
ing and we may cut them without paining us. But further 




Fig. 88.— A Piece of Skin Cut Across to Show the Way in which Hair is Attached to the 
Skin. (Highly magnified.) There is seen to be a depression in the skin into which the 
hair dips. Below, the round, expanded extremity or root of the hair is seen. Two oil tubes 
are seen opening along the side of the hair near the surface of the skin. 

back they are very firmly attached to the back of the finger 
and here they are very sensitive. 

523. Care of the Skin. — You will now appreciate how im- 
portant the skin is, and why it is necessary to keep it in good 
condition. Cleanliness is next to Godliness is an old saying ; 
if you wish to be healthy you must be clean. Dirt is, as a 
rule, a sign of ignorance ; and those nations are usually the 
dirtiest which are the most backward in civilization. On the 
other hand, the more civilized people are the cleaner do they 
keep themselves. There are few things that cause so much 
disease as uncleanliness and filth. 

524. The Results of Uncleanliness and Filth.— When- 
ever you read of outbreaks of cholera and such diseases you 



238 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

will always find that they occur in parts of cities which are 
overcrowded and filthy. This was shown in the last outbreak 
of cholera many years ago in New York. It is easy to un- 
derstand why this should be so. The pores of the skin are 
the openings by which the body gets rid of waste materials, 
just as the sew r er pipes of a city carry off the refuse. Suppose 
the sewer becomes stopped up in a large city, what trouble it 
causes ! What dirt ! What a stench ! In the same way, 
when we allow the dirt to cover the pores of our skin, the 
poisonous materials cannot escape, and the body suffers. In 
taking proper care of the skin it is necessary to pay attention 
to bathing, to our clothing, to exercise, and to avoid using pow- 
der or any like substance upon the skin. 

525. Bathing. — It is not sufficient to wash the hands and 
face daily ; we should wash off the entire body at least once a 
week. If you shake out some of your underclothing at night, 
you will find a great many small white flakes fall to the ground. 
They represent the uppermost layer of the skin which is con- 
stantly being cast off in these small particles and replaced 
by the deeper layers. The entire body is covered with these 
scales, and it is necessary to remove them often. Some fall off 
by themselves, but others must be removed by soap and water. 
Consequently, at least once a week we should take a warm 
bath, and use soap in it, for this removes the stale, oily matter 
also. 

526. Cold Baths. — Besides the warm bath for the sake of 
cleanliness, we should take cold baths, especially in summer, 
because they are refreshing and strengthening. After taking a 
cold bath it is well to rub the body with a coarse towel so as to 
make the skin glow and tingle. This causes the blood to cir- 
culate faster, and increases our strength and appetite. It is 
injurious to remain in a cold bath until you begin to shiver. 
As soon as you begin to feel chilly you should go out. Many 
persons are harmed by cold bathing because they remain in 
the water for too long a time. Some persons are naturally 



THE SENSES. 239 

weak, and when they take a cold bath they arc, not able to 
withstand its effects, so that even though they rub the body 
afterward they still feel cold and chilly ; which is a sign that 
they are unable to endure cold bathing. Such people should 
be content to simply sponge off the body with cold water, be- 
sides taking a warm bath about once a week for the purpose 
of cleansing the body. Never batlie directly after a meal ; wait 
two or three hours. If you are overheated and perspire freely, 
it is better to wait until you are somewhat cooled off before you 
go into cold water. Always wet the entire head as well as the 
rest of the body when bathing. 

527. The Turkish and the Russian Bath.— Probably 
all of you have heard of the Turkish bath and the Russian bath. 
In the Turkish bedh, the person is kept in a room with very hot 
air until he perspires freely ; he is then scrubbed with soap 
and water ; then he plunges into a cold water bath ; next his 
skin is rubbed and his muscles kneaded by men who are em- 
ployed for this purpose. This causes the blood to flow 
faster ; then the person rests himself thoroughly before going 
out into the air. The Russian bath is similar, the only differ- 
ence being that the room is filled with steam instead of hot 
air, to make the person perspire freely. These baths are good 
for grown people, but are not suitable for children. 

528. Clothing. — In the chapter on The Heat of the Body 
something has already been said about proper clothing, so 
that little need be added here. We should change under- 
clothing frequently. It is a healthy practice to take off all our 
underclothing at night and allow it to hang up and be thor- 
oughly aired before putting on again the next morning. 

529. Exercise helps to keep the skin in good condition by 
making us perspire more freely, and in this way keeping the 
pores open. It also causes the blood to circulate through the 
skin more rapidly, which gives us the delightful feeling of 
warmth after exercising. 

530. Cosmetics. — The use of powders and like substances 



240 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

upon the skin is very injurious. These substances, which are 
called cosmetics, stop up the pores and make the skin rough 
and ugly. Besides, many of them are poisonous, and this 
poison may get into the blood through the skin and poison 
the body. Powdering the face is not done by the better class 
of people. 

531. Care of the Hair. — The hair should be combed and 
brushed every morning. Every few weeks it will be necessary 
to wash it with soap and water. The oil tubes of the scalp 
usually supply enough oily matter to keep the hair glossy ; 
hence the practice of putting oil or grease on the hair is not 
only very vulgar and nasty but it is unnecessary. Crimping the 
hair by hot irons destroys the hair and makes it fall out. Hair 
dyes are injurious ; nearly all are made of deadly poisons, which 
may get into the blood and poison the entire body. 

532. Care of the Nails. — The nails should be cut with 
scissors at regular intervals. The 
finger nails should not be bitten 
off. The nails should not be cut 
too close or else the finger tips 
and the ends of the toes will be- 
come SOre. Many persons have FlG> S 9.-Proper and Improper Method 

*nvo fnPQ P^nPPiallv thp birr +c>f> of Trim ming the Toe-nails. The figure 
SOie IOCS, especially Hie Dig IOC, to the left exhibits che proper method— 

"hppnncsp rhpv c\n not pnt thP nail cut off S( l llarel y '• that to the right the 

oecause tney ao nor cut ine nan improper me thod — cut off round and 

properly. It should be cut close - 

straight across and not rounded and short (Fig. 89). Hangnails 

often result from biting the nails or keeping the fingers in the 

mouth. 




THE 8EN8E8. 241 

SYNOPSJS. 
The Skin : 

1. Thickness — Varies in different parts of body. 

2. Uses: 

a. Protection. 

b. Organ of sensation or feeling : 

1. Acuteness varies in different parts of body. 

2. Greatest at finger-tips. 

3. May be developed, as in the blind. . 

4. Depends on the nerves of sensation, ending in the 
skin by small knobs. 

c. To throw off water, salts, and poisonous matters from 
the body. 

d. To regulate the bodily warmth. 

3. Structure : 

a. Scarf-skin on the outside. 

b. True skin beneath. 

4. Color: 

a. Varies in different parts of body. 

b. Varies in different races. 

c. Depends on the amount of brown coloring matter ex- 
isting in the true skin. 

5. Attachments : 

a. Perspiration-tubes — Openings called pores ; necessity 
for keeping open ; perspiration, sensible and insensible ; 
removes matters from body and cools body. 

b. Oil-tubes — Keep skin soft and hair glossy and soft ; 
necessity for using soap to remove stale oily matter. 

c. Hair — Root and point ; hollow ; color varies ; should 
be combed and brushed daily ; should be washed every few 
weeks ; no oil or dyes. 

d. Nails— Should be cut regularly, not bitten off; cut 
across square. 

6. Care of Skin : 

a. Cleanliness. 

b. Bathing : 

1. Warm bath and soap for cleanliness. 

2. Cold bath, refreshing. 



242 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

3. Turkish bath. 4. Kussian bath. 

5. No cold baths for those too weak to stand them. 

6. No bathing directly after meals. 

7. No bathing when overheated. 

8. Wet head as well as rest of body. 

9. Bub body well with coarse towel after bath. 

c. Clothing — Necessity for changing underclothes fre- 
quently. 

d. Exercise. 

e. Cosmetics — To be avoided. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Name the special senses. 2. Is the skin of the same thickness 
throughout the body ? 3. At what points is it the thickest ? 4. What 
are the uses of the skin? 5. Is it necessary to life? 6. How is 
this proven? 7. Of what service is pain? 8. Of what use are the 
nerves of feeling? 9. What parts of the body are intended espe- 
cially for feeling ? 10. What is peculiar of the touch of the blind ? 
11. What is discharged from the body by means of the skin? 12. 
What effect has the skin upon the bodily warmth? 13. Is the color 
of the skin always the same ? 14. Upon what does the color of the 
skin in the negro depend ? 15. Of how many layers is the skin 
formed? 16. What are these layers called? 17. Of what is the 
scarf-skin formed? 18. What becomes of the scales which form 
the scarf-skin? 19. What is dandruff? 20. Describe the true 
skin. 21. How do the two layers of the skin become separated in 
slight burns ? 22. Describe the perspiration tubes. 23. What are 
the pores ? 24. What is insensible perspiration? 25. What is sensi- 
ble perspiration ? 26. What are the uses of perspiration ? 27. What 
does the perspiration remove from the body? 28. About how much 
perspiration leaves the body every day ? 29. How does perspiration 
cool off the body ? 30. What appearance does the skin of the finger- 
tips present ? 31. What other tubes are there besides the perspira- 
tion-tubes ? 32. Of what use is the material which the oil-tubes pro- 
duce ? 33. What happens when the oil-tubes get stopped up? 34. 
Why does the skin of the nose and forehead sometimes have a 
greasy look ? 35. Describe a hair. 36. How is hair attached to the 
skin? 37. Of what use are the nails? 38. Why is cleanliness so 
very important ? 39. Of what is dirt a sign in regard to civilization ? 



THE 8EN8ES. 



243 



40. What eflfeot upon the health 1ms filth? 41. Why is filth so bad 
for the health? -42. How often should the entire body be washed? 

•43. Why should the entire body be washed frequently with soap and 
warm water? 44. AVhat are the effects of a cold bath? 45. What 
should we do to make the circulation more brisk after a cold bath? 

46. What is the sign that you have been in a cold bath long enough ? 

47. Is it well to bathe directly after a meal? 48. What other pre- 
cautions should you take when bathing? 49. Explain the Turkish 
and the Russian bath. 50. Should we wear the same underclothing at 
night that we have worn during the day ? 51. How does exercise 
affect the skin ? 52. What are cosmetics ? 53. What effect have 
they upon the skin? 54. What should be done to the hair? 55. 
What can you say about the practice of putting oil or grease upon 
the hair ? 56. What are most hair dyes made of ? 57. How should 
the nails be cut ? 



THE NOSE— THE SENSE OF SMELL. 

533. Functions- — The nose is the organ with which we 
smell. It is also the part through which the air is drawn. The 




Smell 

Mr 



Tood 



Fig. 90.— Diagram Exhibiting the Channel* by which Smell, Air and Food Reach the In- 

terior of the Body. 

lower part of the nose represents a passage for breathing, the 
upper portion is the part devoted to the sense of smell (Fig. 90). 



244 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

534. The Breathing Channel and the Smelling Chan- 
nel. — When we breathe we draw the air backward through the 
lower part of the nose. This part of the nose runs horizontally 
backward, and behind joins the throat ; so that if a fluid is 
poured into the nose it will run into the throat. When we 
smell, we draw the air upward, because we want the odor to 
ascend to where the nerves of smell are. 

535. Parts of the Nose. — The nose is formed of bones 
and gristle. The hard part on the outside, where usually peo- 
ple wear their eyeglasses, is formed of two small bones and is 
called the bridge of the nose. In looking into the nose we find 
that it is divided into two halves. The openings in front are 
called the nostrils. In the interior of the nose on each side are 
found three shelves of bone covered by a soft membrane ; and 
beneath each shelf is a passage-way which runs from the front 
to the back of the nose. 

536. The Nerves of Smell. — In the membrane which 
covers the two upper shelves just described, are found numer- 
ous nerves, the nerves of smell. By consulting Fig. 91, it will 
be seen that the brain lies immediately above the nose. These 
nerves of smell come in bunches from the brain, and descend 
into the nose. Although we are in the habit of saying that we 
smell with the nose, it would be more correct, strictly speaking, 
to say that we smell with the front part of the brain. The 
nerves of smell merely serve to carry the odors to the brain. 
This is proved by the fact that there is a loss of the sense of 
smell if the front part of the brain be injured or diseased, even 
though the nerves of smell still be present. 

537. The Sense of Smell in the Lower Animals.— 
Many of the lower animals have a much more acute sense of 
smell than man. Dogs and cats, for instance, can smell the 
faintest odors at great distances. In hunting dogs the sense 
of smell is extraordinarily acute ; they can smell game, miles 
away and for this reason are valuable in hunting. This is 
spoken of as scenting the game. Before the civil war, blood- 






THE SENSES. 245 

hounds wore employed to track runaway slaves, and they were 
able to do this owing to the acuteness of their sense of smell. 

538. Cold in the Head. — Almost everyone has caught cold 
at some time. AVhen we catch cold it may settle in any part of 
the body ; it may attack the lungs, or the stomach, or some 
other organ. When the cold settles in our head we usually 




Fio. 91.— View of the Interior of the Nose, showing the Nerves of Smell Descending into 
the Nose from the Brain, in the Form of a Bunch. 



feel it principally in the nose and throat. We often get a sore 
throat and our nose feels stopped up so that we cannot smell, 
and we cannot breathe through it, because there is too much 
blood in it. 

539. Cold in the head is often est due to sitting or standing in 
a draught, or to going suddenly into the cool air when we are 
overheated, without putting on some additional clothing. Very 
often we know that we have been imprudent in this way and 
can feel the cold coming on, and then a mustard foot-bath may 
prevent it. 

540. Use of the Sense of Smell. — With the sense of 
smell we are able to enjoy agreeable odors. But what is im- 



246 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

portant is, that we are also able to smell bad odors, thus pro- 
lecting the body by informing us of the whereabouts of obnox- 
ious things which should be avoided, especially of impure air, 
It enables us to select the proper food, and to refuse that which 
is unfit to eat. It often protects our bodies and homes by 
enabling us to smell smoke and in this way to discover the 
existence of a fire. 

541. Sweet Scents. — To smell the sweet odors which 
flowers give off, is very agreeable. Odors are given off by the 
oils existing in the flowers of plants. These oils are extracted 
from the flowers, and this is then called perfume. Many per- 
sons use this perfume to put upon their handkerchiefs and 
clothes so that they may smell sweet ; but, as a rule, the most 
refined peojDle do not use perfumes. If you always keep the 
body clean and brush your teeth often you will not need any 
perfume ; for if the body is clean, it always smells sweet. 
Soap and water are better than perfume to tidy people. 



SYNOPSIS. 

The Nose : 

1. Parts: 

(1.) Two bones forming bridge. 

(2.) Gristle. 

(3.) Two nostrils. 

(4.) Three shelves running from front to rear. 

(5.) Shelves covered by soft membrane. 

(6.) Membrane of upper two shelves supplied with 

(7.) Nerves of smell which descend in a bunch from brain. 

2. Functions : 

(1.) Lower passage for air. 

(2.) Upper part for sense of smell. 

a. Great acuteness in some of lower animals. 

b. Blunted in cold in head. 

c. Use — To protect us from impure air and im- 
proper food. 






THE SENSES. 247 



QUESTIONS. 

1. What are the uses of the nose? 2. Which part of the nose 
serves for breathing ? 3. Which part is used for smelling? 4. Of 
what is the nose formed? 5. Where is the bridge of the nose? G. 
What are the nostrils? 7. What do we find in the inside of the 
nose ? 8. Where are the nerves of smell? 9. Where do they come 
from ? 10. How is the nose connected with the throat ? 11. Where 
do we find the more acute sense of smell, in man or in the lower 
animals? 12. Give an example. 13. What is meant by a cold in 
the head ? 14. What is this often caused by ? 15. What are the 
uses of the sense of smell ? 16. What parts of plants usually give 
off the sweet scents ? 17. What can you say about the habit of 
using perfume upon the handkerchief or clothing ? 



THE TONGUE AND THE SENSE OF TASTE. 

The tongue is the organ with which we taste our food. 

542. Structure of the Tongue. — This organ consists 
almost entirely of muscle tissue. Its under surface is smooth, 
and its upper surface very rough. This roughness is due to a 
large number of small projections. These can be seen better 
in the lower animals than in man, and serve two purposes : 
First, they are the parts which give us taste ; the nerves of 
taste ending in rounded extremities in these elevations. The 
other use is to feel the food in our mouth and to discover 
whether it is chewed sufficiently fine, and mixed enough with 
the saliva, before it is swallowed. The lower animals, as dogs 
and cats, are enabled to scrape off bones by means of these 
projections. 

543. Uses of the Tongue. — The uses of the tongue are : 
(1) as the organ of taste ; (2) to revolve the food in the mouth, 
to mix it with the saliva, to separate hard portions of food, as 



248 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

seed and shells, and to assist in swallowing; and (3) as the 
principal organ in speaking. The importance of the sense of 
taste need not be pointed out especially. It enables us to 
choose our food and to avoid what is unfit to eat ; it prevents 




Fig. 92.— The Human Tongue ; above, the Epiglottis is also seen. 

us from eating improper food ; it increases the appetite and 
makes us enjoy our meals when the food is to our liking. 

544. Abuse of the Sense of Taste.— The sense of taste 
adds much to our enjoyment. It is necessary, however, to 
prevent it from enjoying too many liberties, otherwise we 



THE SENSE8. 240 

shall be eating too much, become gluttons, and suffer in health. 
In selecting our meals, we are guided by what is wholesome, 
nourishing, and digestible. 

SYNOPSIS. 
The Tongue. 
Structure — 

1. Formed of muscle-tissue. 

2. Smooth on under surface. 

3. Kough on upper surface, due to 

4. Small projections which serve to 

a. Feel food to see if properly chewed. 

b. Taste with, since nerves of taste end here. 
Uses — 

1. Organ of taste. 

2. To revolve food in mouth, mix it with saliva, remove hard 

portions, and assist in swallowing. 

3. To assist in speaking. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. Describe the tongue. 2. Of what kind of tissue is it made 
up? 3. Which surface is rough? 4. What is this roughness due 
to? 5. Of what use are these small elevations? 6. What are the 
uses of the tongue ? 7. What are the uses of the sense of taste ? 
8. How might we abuse the sense of taste ? 



THE EYE AND THE SENSE OF SIGHT. 

545. Protections to the Eye. — The eye is one of the 

most delicate organs in the body. It is placed in the large 
opening in the skull found just below the forehead, on each 
side of the nose, called the orbit. This affords it considera- 
ble protection. Besides this, it is also protected by the eye- 
brows, eyelids, and eyelashes. In the orbit the eye rests upon 
a soft cushion of fat. 



250 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, A1STD HYGIENE. 

546. The Eyelids. — These serve to protect the eyes by 
their quick movement in closing, thus keeping out dust. They 
keep out the light when too strong, or during sleep. 

547. The Eyebrows and Eyelashes.— These keep the 
perspiration from rolling into the eyes, and keep out dust. 
They should never be cut, for this will not cause them to grow 
any longer and injures them by making them thick and stiff. 



End of choroid coat in front. . , 

Space behind iris 

Membrane supporting the lens, 

Cornea 

Aqueous humor 

Lens , 



Iris 

Space behind iris 

End of choroid coat in front . . 




Fig. 93.— The Human Eye (Cut Across and Enlarge.!), Showing Its Different Farts and 

the Interior. 

548. Parts of the Eye. — The eye is spherical in shape, and 
measures about an inch in diameter. Its front portion is per- 
fectly transparent, and is called the cornea. But behind the 
cornea, which forms about one-fifth of the circumference of the 
eyeball, it is opaque and white, and can be separated into three 
layers, or coats. The outermost layer is hard and strong, and 
it preserves the form of the eyeball ; it is called the white of 
the eye, or the sclerotic coat. The middle layer is dark-colored, 
and is called the choroid coat. The inner layer is called the 



THE SENSES. 251 

retina, and is of grout importance, because the nerve of the eye 
semis its branches to it, and it is the portion of the eye with 
which we see (Fig. 93). 

540. Looking into the eye, we see in the centre a black spot 
which is called the pupil. It is a round opening in a mem- 
brane which acts as a partition to this part of the eye. This 
membrane is a colored ring which surrounds the pupil and is 
really a curtain hanging behind the clear part of the eye. It is 
called the iris. 

550. Behind this curtain, the iris, is a round transparent 
body, about the size of a cherry-pit, which is called the lens. 
It is perfectly clear and its shape is like that of a small magni- 
fying glass ; but it is softer, like a hard jelly. It is supported 
behind the iris, just where the transparent part of the eye joins 
the opaque portion, by a delicate membrane, and is round, but 
flattened somewhat in front and behind. 

551. The interior of the eye is filled with fluid. Just be- 
hind the cornea, extending to the lens, is a space which is 
filled with a watery fluid called the aqueous humor. The 
rest of the eyeball (behind the lens) is filled with a clear 
substance like white jelly, called the glassy body or vitreous 
humor. 

552. The Iris. — It has just been explained that this is a 
curtain placed in front of the lens of the eye. There is a round 
opening in the centre, by which light is admitted to the eye ; 
this is the pupil. The pupil changes its size very often. When 
we look at anything in the distance the pupil becomes large ; 
when we look at objects close by it becomes very small. The 
pupil also regulates the amount of light which should enter the 
eye. In going into a bright light, as for instance into the sun, 
the pupil becomes very small ; if it did not do so the light 
would be too bright and would injure the eye. It is very 
dangerous to the eye to try to look at the sun. In the twilight, 
when the light is dim, you will notice that the pupil becomes 
very large. 



252 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

553. The Muscles of the Eye. — It is wonderful how 
rapidly the eyes move ; but this is necessary to protect the 
body. The rapid motion of the eyes is also necessary so that 
they can act together. If you were to press upon one eye so 
that it could not move, and then were to move the other, every- 
thing would look double ; so that the two eyes must move to- 
gether if we want to see singly and plainly. There are six 
small muscles (Fig. 94) attached to each eye, which make its 
movements so rapid. Sometimes one of these muscles does 
not act so well as it should ; then the eye turns in all the time 







Fig. 94.- The Muscles Attached to the Eyeball and to the Upper Lid. 

or constantly looks outward ; the person is then cross-eyed, or 
squints. Some children are born this way and it is not right to 
make fun of them. Sometimes children turn their eyes so as 
to imitate cross-eyed persons — a very injurious habit. 

554. How We See. — It may seem strange to say that we 
really see with the bi % ai% but such is the case. Of course the 
eyes are necessary, and without them we should be blind ; but 
the brain is also necessary for sight. If a certain part of the 
brain be injured we cannot see, even though our eyes remain 
as clear and bright as they were before. 

555. Resemblance of the Eye to a Photographer's 
Camera. — The eye resembles the box w T hich the photographer 
uses to take pictures, and which is called a camera. Let us see 
how it resembles the photographer's camera. In the first place 



THE SENSES. 253 

the photographer cannot take a picture in the dark, nor can we 
see in the dark. Secondly, in the front of the camera there is 
a lens of glass ; we also have a lens, though it is of course not 
of glass, but of a better and softer material. Again, in the 
back of the photographer's camera is a glass plate, upon which 
the picture falls and is taken ; in the same way in our eyes the 
retina serves as a plate upon which to take the picture. Anything 
which we see forms an image upon the retina. This image 
lasts only a short time, but long enough for us to see it. Fi- 
nally, you have probably noticed how the photographer puts a 
black cloth over his head and the back of the camera so as to 
keep it dark ; the middle, colored coat of the eye — the choroid 
— serves to darken the inside of the eye. 

556. The Nerve of the Eye.— Connected with the back 
of the eye is a portion resembling a cord, which passes to the 
brain. This is the optic nerve, or nerve of the eye. It is the 
nerve which connects the eye with the portion of the brain 
used in seeing. On arriving at the eye the nerve spreads out 
in the interior of this organ and forms the innermost layer, 
which is called the retina. By looking into the interior of the 
eye with an instrument, the oculist can see this layer. It is 
shown in Fig. 95, the central spot being where the nerve enters 
the eye ; at this point blood-vessels also enter the eye and then 
divide and spread out in a very pretty manner. 

557. Blindness. — If the optic nerves of both sides become 
diseased, or both retinae become changed, the person may be- 
come totally blind, even though the eye appears perfectly 
healthy on the outside. These nerves carry the sight from the 
eye to the brain, with which seeing is really done. 

558. Images. — The word image has been used and will re- 
quire some explanation. If you look into a mirror you will see 
your face — this is an image of your face. The light strikes 
your face and from it passes to the mirror ; there it forms an 
image ; from this image the light passes into the eye and forms 
another image upon the retina, which we see. 



254 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

559. The Tears. — The eye is constantly kept moist by 
being bathed with tears. At the outer part of each eye be- 




ITlG. 95. — A View of the Interior of the Eye, as Seen with the Oculist's Instrument. 




Fig. 96 The Lachrymal Gland, Sac, and Duct. 



tween it and the bone forming the roof of the orbit, is a small 
body called the lachrymal gland (Fig. 96), meaning tear-gland. 
This body is constantly pouring the tears over the eye so as to 



THE SKNSKS. 255 

keep it moist. Even during sleep this takes place, though 
there is then much less produced. When we are awake the eye 
is moving constantly and this movement spreads the tears over 
the eyeballs. After the tears have moistened the eye, they are 
collected again and escape into the nose. If you look at your 
lids you will notice near the inner corner of the eye, a small 
spot about the size of a pin's point. There is one of these on 
the lower lid and one on the upper. The tears pass into these 
openings and then into a small bag near the nose, called the 
tear-sac ; then they are carried down into the nose by a tube 
called the tear-duct, or nasal duct (Fig. 96). You have noticed 
how the nose runs after crying. This is because there is so 
much more of this fluid discharged into the tear-duct. If any- 
thing gets into the eye, the lachrymal gland produces more of 
the tears and they flood this organ until the intruding body is 
swept away. If we become very sad or very angry, tears be- 
come very abundant. 

560. Care of the Eyes. — There is no organ in the body 
which contributes so much to our comfort, our enjoyment, and 
our knowledge, as does the eye. And yet the eye is constantly 
being misused. If you have good eyesight you should take 
care of your eyes so that it does not get bad, and if your eye- 
sight has already become bad you should see that it does not 
get worse. Some of the most common rules for the care of the 
eyesight are the following : 

561. After having read a long time, it is well to stop and rest 
the eyes ; for the eyes, like any other part of the body, cannot 
be used continuously. It is quite natural that the eyes should 
feel tired and begin to pain after we have used them a long 
time ; this is nature's sign that they need rest. 

562. Never read in a poor light. You may be finishing a 
chapter in your book and you notice that it is beginning to get 
dark, yet you do not stop until you get to the end of the chap- 
ter even though you strain your eyes. This is wrong and the 
eyes suffer for it. 



256 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

563. Never read very fine print if you can help it. 

564. In reading, have the light come over your shoulder and 
thus fall upon the book or paper without going directly into 
your eyes. It is better to sit with your back to the window 
and thus have the light come over your shoulder, and preferably 
over the left shoulder. This precaution is especially useful at 
night, for the glare of the gaslight or lamp is very tiring to the 
eyes ; while if the light is behind you and falls over your shoul- 
der there is just as much light upon your book or paper and yet 
the eyes are spared the brightness. 

565. Never read ivhile lying upon the bach. You cannot read 
comfortably in this position and you have to strain the eyes 
so that it is very tiring. If for any reason you must read lying 
down, do so with the shoulders and head raised into a half- 
sitting position. 

566. There may be some excuse for business men's reading in 
the cars, for often this may be the only time they have to read 
the daily papers. But there is no reason why children should 
do this. It is injurious, in the first place, because the light is 
usually poor, but chiefly, because the constant jolting of the 
car makes the page unsteady and requires a constant strain 
upon the eyes to keep the place. 

567. Never wash your eyes with water which another person has 
used on his face. Never use a towel for wiping your face, which 
another person has had to his face, unless this person is one of 
your family and you know he has no eye disease. There is a 
disease of the eyelids, called granular lids, which is very con- 
tagious ; many children contract it in school by using the 
towel which another child who had the disease has used. 

568. Do not stoop ivhen you read, but raise the book so that you 
can hold the head erect. 

569. Weak Sight. — Some persons are born with weak eyes 
— that is, they do not see so well as other people and have to 
wear glasses. Some of these people are called near-sighted, 
others are called far-sighted. If the doctor advises you to wear 



THE 8EN8ES. 2.07 

glasses you should not be ashamed to do so. Only vain per- 
sons object to wearing* glasses when they are necessary. 

570. Old Sight. — After persons are about forty years old 
they can still see distant objects well ; but they need glasses in 
looking at near objects. 



SYNOPSIS. 
The Eye : 

1. Protections . 

a. Surrounded by bony orbit. 

b. Eests on cushion of fat. 

c. Eyebrows — Keep off perspiration. 

> Keep out dirt, light, and perspiration. 
e. Eyelashes. ) 

2. Parts : 

a. Coats : 

1. Opaque part behind. 

a. Sclerotic — Outer, white, dense. 

b. Choroid — Middle, colored, brown. 

c. Retina — Inner, composed of nerve-tissue. 

2. Transparent part in front — Cornea. 

b. Iris — Curtain to keep out light ; in centre is 

c. Pupil — Size changes. 

d. Lens. 

e. Fluids : 

1. Aqueous humor. 

2. Vitreous humor. 

/. Muscles — Six small ones attached to eye, to move it 
in all directions. 

g. Nerve —Attached behind and passing to brain, with 
which we really see. 

h. Lachrymal gland — Near the eye, gives off the tears, 
which keep the eyeball moist, collected by tear-sac and es- 
cape by tear-duct into nose. 
Care of the Eye : 

1. Pvequires rest when used for long time. 

2. Good light in reading. 

3. Injurious to read very fine print, 



258 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

4. Light should come from behind — over shoulder. 

5. Not well to read while lying down. 

6. Not well to read while riding in cars. 

7. Bisk of contracting eye disease in using towels or water 
that other people have used, to eyes. 

8. In reading, sit erect. 

9. Weak sight requires glasses. 

10. Old sight (after forty) requires glasses. 

QUESTIONS. 

1. In what are the eyes placed? 2. How are the eyes protected ? 
3. What do the eyelids do ? 4. Of what use are the eyebrows and 
eyelashes? 5. Why should we not cut the eyelashes or the eye- 
brows ? 6. What is the shape of the eye ? 7. What is the cornea ? 
8. How many layers has the back part of the eye ? 9. What is the 
back part called ? 10. Which is the most important of these three 
layers? 11. What is the pupil ? 12. What is the iris? 13. What 
is the lens ? 14. With what is the interior of the eye filled ? 15. 
What two fluids do we have in the eye ? .16. Is the pupil always of 
the same size? 17. When does it become large? 18. When does 
it become small ? 19. Of what use is the pupil ? 20. How many 
muscles are there to each eye ? 21. Of what use are these muscles ? 
22. What is the cause of cross-eyes ? 23. With what part of the 
body do we really see, the eye or the brain? 24. How is this 
proven ? 25. What instrument may our eye be compared with ? 
26. Explain in what ways our eye resembles the photographer's 
box ? 27. Where is the nerve of the eye ? 28. What does it do ? 
29. What do we mean by an image ? 30. How is the eye kept 
moist ? 31. Where is the body which produces the tears ? 32. 
What is it called ? 33. How are the tears collected again ? 34. 
What becomes of them? 35. Where is the tear-sac ? 36. Where is 
the tear-duct ? 37. W T hat causes the tears to flow more than usual ? 
38. Why should w« stop after we have read a long time ? 39. What 
does a tired feeling or pain in the eye after reading mean ? 40. 
What sort of light should be avoided ? 41. Where should the light- 
come from when you read ? 42. Should it come from the front ? 
43. Why not? 44. Can a person read lying down, without injury 
to his eyes ? 45. Why not ? 46. Why should we not read on the 



THE SENSES. 



259 



ears. 47. Why should we not use towels that other persons have 
used to their faces ? 48. What disease of the eyelids may be con- 
tracted in this way? -i ( .). What position should you take when you 
read? 50. What is meant by weak sight? 51. After what age do 
people need glasses for reading? 



THE EAR— THE SENSE OP HEARING. 

571. Like tbe eye, tbe ear is an organ wbich adds very much 
to our comfort, pleasure, and knowledge. 

572. Parts of the Ear.— The ear is divided into three parts : 
An outer, a middle, and an inner. 

573. The Outer Ear is the part seen at the side of the 

head. It is expanded and formed 
of gristle, covered with skin. Its 
shape is not only ornamental, but 
useful, for it serves to collect the 
sound and lead it into the deeper 
parts of the ear. As a rule, we 
cannot move the ears ; but in the 
lower animals the ear can be moved 
in all directions, and in this way 
these animals tell where the sound 
comes from. From this outer part 
of the ear there is a canal about an 
inch long which leads to the next 
part, or the middle ear. In this 
canal is usually found a little yel- 
lowish substance, which we call 

ear-wax, which serves to keep the 
canal soft and moist and to keep out insects, which dislike this 
wax. 

574. The Middle Ear. — The middle part of the ear contains 
the drum, and is only about half an inch across. It is at the 




Fig. 1)7.— The Outer Ear. 



260 



ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 



bottom of the canal which leads from the outer ear. Between 
the two a sheet of membrane is stretched which is called the 
drum-membrane. In the middle ear itself there is nothing but 
three small bones which are joined so as to form a small chain. 
One end of this chain is fastened to the drum-membrane and 
the other to the inner ear, so that these bones connect the 
outer ear with the inner ear. 




Fig. 98.— The Different Parts of the Organ of Hearing. 1, The outer ear ; 2, the canal 
leading from the outer to the middle ear ; 3, middle ear ; 4» Eustachian tube ; 5, nerve of 
hearing ; 6, the internal ear. 



575. Bones of the Ear. — These bones are shown in Fig. 
99, and are very interesting. They are named, according to 
their shape, the hammer, the anvil, and the stirrup. 

576. Connection Between the Ear and the Throat. 
— Perhaps you may have noticed that sometimes when you 
blow your nose hard there is a stuffed feeling in the eara ; or 
that when your throat was sore your ears were also affected. 
Sometimes, too, when you swallow you feel something in your 



THE SENSES. 



261 



oar. This is because there is a tube which runs from the throat 
to the middle ear. It is very important that this tube remain 
open, for otherwise air cannot enter the middle ear as it should 
and we do not hear well. This tube is called the Eustachian 
tube, after the physician who first described it (Fig. 98, 4). 

577. The Internal Ear. — This part of the ear is placed 
very deeply in the bone. There are several circular canals and 
a winding passage like a staircase hollowed out of the bone, 
and in these the inner ear is contained (Fig. 100). In these 
circular canals we find a delicate membrane and a fluid on 





Fig. 99.— The Small Bones of the Ear. A, 
The hammer ; B, the anvil ; C, the stirrup. 



Fig. 100.— The Internal Ear. 



each side of it. The arrangements in the internal ear are very 
intricate. 

578. The Nerve of Hearing. — The nerve of hearing is at- 
tached to the internal ear and from this part it passes to the 
brain (Fig. 98, 5) ; it therefore conducts the sound to the brain 
just as the optic nerve conducts sight to the brain. 

579. Sound. — Before studying how Ave hear, it is necessary 
to understand how sound is produced. Sound is produced 
whenever the air is made to vibrate — that is, whenever the air 
is put into motion resembling waves. You will understand, 
this better if you think for a moment of the water: Suppose 
when a pond is quiet, you throw in a stone ; this causes a mo- 



262 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

tion in the water and you will then see rings start out from the 
point where the stone fell, these rings becoming larger and 
larger until they are finally lost ; but all the time these rings 
or very small waves have been going farther and farther from 
the centre. Now imagine the same thing occurring in the air. 
If you strike a bell, for instance, you know that the bell is 
vibrating, because if you put your finger on it you can feel 
this motion. This motion is given to the air, and the air 
vibrates in the same way, except that the vibrations travel 
through the air to our ear. 

580. Solids conduct sound even better than air does ; if you 
place your ear at one end of the table and strike the other end 
the sound which you hear will be very loud. 

581. How We Hear. — Now that we know what sound is, 
let us study how we hear. The waves of sound pass through 
the air and reach the outer ear, which is shaped so as to collect 
them and lead them into the canal to the drum-membrane. 
The waves of sound beat against this membrane and cause it 
to vibrate ; when this membrane vibrates, the bones of the 
middle ear must also move to and fro, because they are at- 
tached to it. The bones of the middle ear carry the vibra- 
tions to the internal ear, where the nerve of hearing ends in 
a large number of fine hairs, and these carry the sound to the 
brain. 

582. Deaf-Mutes- — Persons who cannot hear when they 
are children, and therefore cannot imitate sounds from other 
people, are called deaf-mutes. These unfortunate people have 
voices just like others ; but they cannot hear the sounds, and 
therefore they cannot speak in the ordinary way. But they 
can make themselves understood in two ways : One way is by 
means of signs and letters which they make with their fingers, 
and which they learn to do very rapidly. The second method, 
and the most recent, is to teach the deaf-mutes to talk by hav- 
ing them imitate the motion of our lips. It is surprising how 
well they learn to do this ; some of them being able to carry 



THE SENSES. 263 

on a conversation and yet not hear what is spoken, but under- 
standing it by watching the movement of the lips. 

583. Care of the Ears. — We should never try to pick out 
the wax in the ears with hairpins and other sharp instruments. 
A little wax is quite natural, and if too much is there it is best 
to let the doctor remove it, for we may injure the delicate 
parts of the ear. 

584. If water gets into the ear during bathing, hold the head 
over to one side and pull the outer ear up and down gently, 
and it will flow out. 

585. If an insect should crawl into the ear, a little soap and 
water will kill it, and at the same time bring it out. 

586. A blow upon the side of the head or over the ear is 
dangerous, because it sometimes affects the brain ; it may also 
tear the delicate drum -membrane and thus interfere with good 
hearing. 

587. The ears do not need to be washed out when they are 
healthy ; simply wash the outer ear and do not meddle with 
any of the deeper parts. 

SYNOPSIS. 

The Ear : 
Parts : 

1. Outer ear — Collects sound. 

2. Canal leading from outer to middle ear. 

3. Middle ear : 

a. Drum -membrane. 

b. Bones : (1) Hammer, (2) anvil, (3) stirrup. 

4. Internal ear — Nerve of hearing ends here in fine hairs, 
and conveys sound to brain. 

5. Eustachian tube — Leading from throat to middle ear. 
How we Hear : 

1. Vibration of sounding body. 

2. Vibration of air. 

3. Collection of sound by outer ear. 

4. Conveyance of sound by canal. 

5. Strikes against drum-membrane. 



264 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE. 

6. Vibrations conducted by chain of bones to 

7. Internal ear, where they strike the hair-like ends of 

8. The nerve of hearing, which conducts sound to 

9. Brain. 



QUESTIONS. 

1. Into what three parts can the ear be divided ? 2. Why is the 
external ear shaped as it is ? 3. Can the lower animals move their 
ears ? 4. Of what use is this to them ? 5. What leads from the 
outer ear down to the middle ear ? 6. What is ear-wax ? 7. What 
are its uses ? 8. What is another name for the middle ear ? 9. 
Where is the drum-membrane ? 10. What is in the middle ear ? 
11. How are the bones of the middle ear arranged ? 12. What are 
the names given to the bones of the middle ear ? 13. What con- 
nects the throat with the middle ear ? 14. Where is the internal 
ear ? 15. What is its form ? 16. What is in the internal ear ? 17. 
Where is the nerve of hearing ? 18. What does it do ? 19. How is 
sound produced ? 20. What conducts the sound ? 21. Can solids 
conduct sound ? 22. How can you prove this ? 23. Explain how 
we hear? 24. What is meant by a deaf-mute? 25. Has a deaf- 
mute any voice ? 26. Why cannot he talk without special teaching ? 
27. How do deaf-mutes make themselves understood? 28. Why 
should we not try to pick out the wax in our ears ? 29. How would 
you get rid of any insect that crawled into the ear ? 30. Why is a 
blow upon the side of the head or over the ear dangerous ? 



GLOSSAEY. 



(The numbers following definitions refer to pages containing additional 

information. ) 



Ab do'men (Latin, abdere, to hide). The large cavity of the lower part 
of the trunk, below the diaphragm, in which the liver and the 
stomach, intestines, and other digestive organs are placed ; the 
belly, 17, 18, 34. 

Ab sorp'tion (Latin, ab, and sorbere, to suck up). The process of suck- 
ing up fluids by means of the blood-vessels or lymphatics, 91. 

Ad'am's Ap'ple. The prominent angles of the larynx which can be 
seen and felt in the front of the neck. It is said to have been thus 
named from an old belief that the apple stuck in Adam's throat, 
thus causing this projection, 126. 

Al'co hol (Arabic, al kohl, a powder to paint the eyebrows with). A 
colorless fluid, resembling water in appearance, which forms the in- 
toxicating portion of beer, wine, and spirits, 156, 162, 164. 

Alt. ment'a ry Ca-nal (Latin, alere y to feed). The series of hollow 
organs in which the food is digested, or prepared for absorption by 
the blood. It comprises the mouth, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, 
and intestines, 74, 75. 

A nat'o my (Greek, ana, up, and temnein, to cut). The study of the 
form and structure of the different parts of the body, 13. 

A or'ta (Greek, aeirein, to lift up). The large artery which arises 
from the left ventricle of the heart and passes down along the back- 
bone, giving off branches in its course, 111, 112. 

Ap'o plexy (Greek, apo, away, and plessein, to strike). A sudden loss 
of consciousness, due to the bursting of a blood-vessel in the 
brain, 117, 173. 

A' que ous (Latin, aqua, water). Wateiy, 250, 251. 



266 GLOSSARY. 

A'que ous Hu'mor (Latin, humere, to be moist). The few drops of 
watery fluid which fill the space between the cornea and the lens of 
the eyeball, 250, 251. 

Ar'ter y (Greek, aer, air, and terein, to contain). A blood-vessel which 
conducts blood from the heart to the various tissues. The ancients 
believed that the arteries were filled with air j hence the name, 100, 
112. 

Au'ri cle (Latin, aaris, the ear ; auricula, a small ear). The upper 
cavity of the heart on each side ; so named from its fancied resem- 
blance to a dog's ear, 108. 

Bi' ceps (Latin, bis, twice, and caput, head). A large and strong mus- 
cle on the front of the arm, serving to bend the forearm upon the 
arm ; so called because it is attached to the bone by two portions 
called heads, 51, 53, 54, 55. 

Bi cus'pid (Latin, bis, twice, and cuspis, point). The name given to 
the fourth and fifth teeth on each side, on account of their possess- 
ing two elevations upon the crown, 77. 

Bile (Latin, bilis, anger, bile). The gall ; the peculiar yellowish or 
greenish fluid, bitter to the taste, formed in the liver, and emptied 
into the commencement of the small intestine, 89. 

Bow' el (Latin, botellus, a small sausage). The intestine ; the long 
hollow tube into which the partly-digested food passes from the 
stomach, 75, 85, 87. 

_ , ( (Greek, bronchos, windpipe). The first two divis- 

_, , / , ix 1 ions of the windpipe, one passing to each lung, 
Bbon chi (plural) } 136> 130 , 133 . 

Bron'chi al. Relating to the bronchi ; bronchial tubes, the smaller 
branches of the bronchi in the substance of the lung, 126, 130, 132. 

Bun'ion. An enlargement and soreness of the great toe at the joint 
connecting it with the body of the foot, 25. 

Ca nine' (Latin, canis, dog). The sharp, pointed tooth on each side 
of the incisors ; so called because it is very prominent in the dog, 
77. 

Cap'il la ries (Latin, capillus, hair). The smallest blood-vessels, con- 
necting the arteries and veins ; so called on account of their mi- 
nute, "hair-like'' size, 110, 112, 113. 

Cap'su lar (Latin, capsula, a small box). A name used to qualify cer- 
tain ligaments which surround joints "like a box," 43, 44. 

Car bon'ic Acid Gas (Latin, carbo, coal). The gas which is present in 



GLOSSARY. 267 

the air breathed out by animals; it represents waste in animals, 
but serves as food for plants, 103, 110, 118, 184, 135, 159. 

C vk niv'o ROUS (Latin, cumin, flesh, and rorair, to devour). Subsisting 
largely or entirely on llesh, 64. 

Car'pub (Greek, carpos, the wrist). The collection of small bones, 
eight in number, forming the wrist, 20, 22, 35. 

Car'ti lage (Latin, cartilayo, gristle). A solid elastic substance found 
in joints, in the nose and elsewhere ; gristle, 25, 43, 46, 244. 

Cell (Latin, cella, a store-room). A small body, often rounded, form- 
ing one of the simplest parts of which the body is built up ; cells 
and fibres make up the greater part of the body, 16, 82, 89, 161, 219. 

Ceh'e bel'lum (Latin, diminutive of cerebrum, the brain). The little 
brain, placed beneath the back part of the rest of the brain, 217, 
218, 219, 221. 

Cere brum (Latin). The larger portion (seven-eighths) of the brain, 
217, 218, 219, 221. 

Chest (Latin, data, a box). The upper cavity of the trunk inclosed by 
the breast-bone, ribs, and spinal column, and containing the heart 
and lungs, 17, 18, 20, 22, 33, 138. 

Chloral (Greek, chloros, pale green). A drug used to produce sleep, 
204. 

Cho'roid (Greek, chorion, a membrane). The middle coat of the eye- 
ball, 250, 253. 

Circula'tion (Latin, circulus, a ring). The course of the blood 
through the heart and blood-vessels of the body ; from heart to ar- 
teries, through capillaries to veins, back to heart, 100, 105, 109, 
110. 

Clav'i cle (Latin, clavicula, a little key, from clams, key). The long, 
slender bone extending across the upper part of the front of the 
chest, the collar-bone, 20, 22, 32, 34. 

Clot. The dark-red, semi-solid mass which results when blood is 
withdrawn from the blood-vessels, 104. 

Co'ca lne (Spanish, coca, a Peruvian plant). A drug used to make cer 
tain parts insensible to pain, 184. 

Com bus'tion (Latin, comburere, to burn). A burning-up ; applied to 
the process taking place in the body by which the tissues are con- 
sumed, to be replaced by elements in the blood, 143. 

Corn (Latin, cornu, a horn). A small elevation due to thickening of 
the outer layer of the skin ; corns usually appear upon the toes and 
are caused by pressure from shoes which do not fit properly or are 
too tight, 25. 



268 GLOSSARY. 

Corne a (Latin, cornu, a horn). The transparent membrane which 
forms the front of the eyeball, 250. 

Cor'o nal (Latin, corona, crown). A name given to the suture which 
unites the frontal with the parietal bones, because the crown of a 
king rests in part upon this line, 42. 

Cor'pus cles, Blood (Latin, corpus, a body ; corpusculum, a small 
body). The small bodies, some red, some white, found floating in 
the fluid part of the blood, 100, 101. 

Cosmet'ic (Greek, kosmos, ornament). Preparations which when ap- 
plied to the skin are supposed to increase its beauty, 239. 

Cra'ni um (Latin). That portion of the skull which incloses the brain, 27. 

Crown (Latin, corona, a crown). The top of the skull, 16. Also the 
part of the tooth which projects into the mouth, 76. 

Crys'tal line (Latin, crysiallum, a crystal). Like glass ; applied to the 
lens in the interior of the eye on account of its transparent proper- 
ties, 250, 251. 

Dan'druff. The small scales, corresponding to the outer layer of the 

skin, which fall off the scalp, 234. 
Deaf' mute. A person who is deaf and dumb, 262. 
De lir'ium (Latin, delirare, to wander in mind). A condition in which 

the ideas of a person are wild and wandering, 176, 226. 
De lir'i um Tremens (Latin, tremere, to tremble). The condition of 

being out of the mind, which results from over-indulgence in alco- 
holic drink, 176, 226. 
Den'tine (Latin, dens, sl tooth). The hard material which forms the 

main part of the tooth between the pulp within and the enamel on 

the surface, 76. 
Di'aphragm (Greek, diaphrassein, to divide by a partition). The sheet 

of muscular tissue which separates the chest from the abdomen, 34, 

56. 
Digest' (Latin, digerere, to separate). To separate the food into nutri- 
tious juices which can be absorbed by the system and matters which 

are cast off, 74, 91. 
Dislo ca'tion (Latin, dislocare, to put out of place). The separation, 

by accident, of the ends of bones forming a joint, 44. 
Drum Mem'brane. The small sheet of tissue which separates the outer 

from the middle ear, and serves to transmit sounds to the interior 

of the ear, 260, 262. 
Duct (Latin, ducere, to lead). A narrow tube, such as the bile-duct, 94, 

nasal duct, 254, 255. 



GLOSSARY. 260 

Duo de'ntjm (Latin, duodsni t twelve each). The first portion of the 

BDiall Intestine ; so called because LtS length is about twelve lingers' 
breadth, 7-*), 85. 
Dvs pep'si a (Greek, dys f difficult, and peptein, to digest). A disordered 
state of the organs of digestion giving rise to difficult or painful 
digestion, 78, 92, 170. 

K\ ym'el. The hard layer which covers the crown of the tooth, 76. 

Epi dem'ic (Greek, epidemos, among the people). A disease which at- 
tacks a large number of persons of one neighborhood at the same 
time, 70. 

Epi glot'tis (Greek, epi, above, and glotta, the tongue). A leaf- shaped 
piece of cartilage which covers the entrance to the larynx during 
swallowing, 127. 

Eu sta'chi-an Tube. The tube which leads from the throat to the 
middle ear, so called from the physician who first described it, 261. 

Ex pi-ra'tion. The act of breathing out, 125, 128. 

Expire' (Latin, ex, out, and spirare, to breathe). To breathe out, 125, 
128. 

Fainting. Loss of consciousness, due usually to an interference with 

the circulation, 114. 
Fang. The long, pointed end or root of a tooth, 76, 77. 
Farina'ceous (Latin, farina, flour). Containing starch ; starchy, 64. 
Far'-sighted. Having one of the forms of defective sight, 256. 
Femur (Latin). The thigh-bone, 20, 22, 35, 36. 
Fermenta'tion (Latin, fervere, to be boiling hot). The change by 

which starch or sugar in a liquid is converted into alcohol and a 

gas, 159, 162. 
Fi'bre (Latin, fibra, a thread). One of the tiny threads of which a large 

portion of the body is formed, 16, 47. 
Fib'ula (Latin, fibula, a clasp). The outer, long, slender bone of the 

leg, 20, 22, 36. 
Flesh' y. Applied to animal food, especially meat, in distinction from 

vegetable food, 47, 64. 
Fracture (Latin, frangere, to break). The breaking of a bone, 25, 26. 
Front'al (Latin, frons, the forehead). Belonging to the forehead, 22, 

27, 29. 
Function (Latin, functio, performing). The special work of any or- 
gan of the body, 15, 211. 

Gall. The bile, 89, 



270 GLOSSARY. 

Gastric (Greek, gaster, the stomach). Belonging to the stomach, 82. 

Gastric Juice. The fluid secreted by the stomach, which digests 
fleshy food, 82, 83. 

Gel'a tin (Latin, gelare, to congeal). An animal substance found in 
bones, cartilage, and other tissues, which dissolves in boiling water, 
and forms a firm jelly upon cooling, 24. 

Gland (Latin, glans, an acorn). An organ which separates certain 
substances from the blood, 78, 79, 254. 

Gout (Latin, gutta, drop). A disorder of the system in which one of 
the prominent symptoms is a painful affection of the joints, 90. 

Gran'u lar Lids (Latin, granum, grain). A contagious affection of 
the eyelids, so called because the lids, when turned out, often pre- 
sent the appearance of being studded with small grain-like bodies, 
256. 

Gris'tle. Cartilage, 25, 43, 46, 244. 

Groin. The depression on each side between the abdomen and thigh, 
just below the hip, 17, 18. 

Gul/let (Latin, gula, throat). The tube between the throat and stom- 
ach, serving for the passage of food and drink ; the oesophagus, 75, 
79, 80, 129. 

Hang'nail. A small flake of skin which hangs from the side or root 

of a nail, 240. 
Hem'i spheres (Greek, Jiemi, half, and sphaira, a sphere). The halves 

into which the cerebrum is divided, 215, 218. 
Hem'or rhage (Greek, haima, blood, and regnvmi, to burst). The es- 
cape of blood from the blood-vessels ; any bleeding, 116. 
Her biv'o Rous (Latin, lierba, herb, and wrare, to devour). Subsisting 

on vegetable food, 64. 
Hip. The projection on each side of the bod}^ just above the thigh, 

formed by the hip-bone, 17, 18. 
Hops. A plant, the flowers of which are used in flavoring beer, 165. 
Hu'man (Latin, homo, man). Relating to man, 13. 
Hu'me rus (Latin). The thigh-bone, 20, 22, 34. 
Hu'mor (Latin, humere, to be moist). An animal fluid ; especially the 

fluid contents of the eyeball, 250, 251. 
Hy'giene (Greek, Ilygeia, the goddess of health). The science which 

treats of the preservation of health and the prevention of disease, 13. 

In ci'sor (Latin, incidere, to cut in). The four front teeth in both jaws ; 
they have sharp, chisel-like edges, 77. 



GLOSSARY. 271 

In'dex Fin'geb (Latin, indfatre, to point out). The forefinger; the 
finger next to the thumb, 18, 22. 

In m QEST'l-BLE (Latin, in, not, and digerere, to separate). Not easily 
converted by the organs of digestion so as to be tit for absorption by 
the blood and tissues, 84. 

In digbs'tion (Latin, in, not, and digerere, to separate). A condition 
in which the food is not properly digested, or digested with diffi- 
culty, 78, 92. 

Inspire' (Latin in, in, and spirare, to breathe). To draw in breath, 

In spi ra'tion (Latin, in, in, and spirare, to breathe). The act of in- 
spiring or drawing in breath, 125. 

Instep. The raised portion of the foot near the ankle, 17, 18, 36. 

In-tel'li-gence (Latin, inteliigere, to understand). The pow T er w T hich 
enables us to judge and understand, 220. 

Intes'tine (Latin, intus, on the inside). The hollow tube which fills 
the greater part of the abdomen, and forms the continuation of the 
digestive organs beyond the stomach ; the bowels, 75, 85. 

In tox'i gating (Latin, toxicum, an arrow poison). Making drunk ; 
capable of bringing under the effects of alcohol, 156, 175. 

In vol'un ta ry (Latin, in, not, and voluntas, will). Not dependent 
upon the will, 50, 133. 

I'ris (Latin, iris, the rainbow). The colored membrane in the front 
portion of the eye perforated in its centre by the pupil, 250, 251. 

Jaundice (Latin, galbus, yellow). The yellowish discoloration of the 

skin and of the white of the eye, due to bile being present in the 

blood, 89. 
Joint (Latin, jungere, to bind together). The place of meeting or union 

of two or more bones, 41, 42, 43, 44. 
Judgment (Latin, judicare, from jus, law, and dicare, to proclaim). 

The faculty of judging or deciding correctly, 220. 

Kidney. An important organ placed in the back part of the abdom- 
inal cavity ; it separates certain refuse materials from the blood. 
There are two kidneys, 145. 

Lach'ry mal (Latin, lacrima, a tear). Forming tears, 29, 254. 
Lacei'ry mal Duct. The small canal w T hich conveys the tears from 

the eye to the interior of the nose, 254. 
Lach'ry mal Gland. The small organ, placed just above the eye, 

which produces the tears, 254. 



272 GLOSSARY. 

Lac'teals (Latin, lac, milk). The small vessels (part of the lym- 
phatics) which carry the nutritious juices representing the digested 
food, from the intestines to the blood, emptying into a large vein of 
the neck, 91, 118, 119. 

Lam'b doid (Greek letter lambda, A). The name given to the suture 
which connects the occipital with the parietal bones, on account of 
its resemblance in shape to the Greek letter lambda, A, 42. 

Larynx (Greek, larugx, a whistle). The upper part of the air-passage 
in which the voice is produced, 125, 126, 132. 

Lean (Latin, lenis, soft, moderate). Thin, devoid of fat, 48. 

Lens (Latin, lens, a lentil). A transparent body with curved surfaces, 
which influence the course of rays of light. The lens of the eye is 
the transparent body placed just behind the iris and pupil, which 
causes images to fall upon the retina or nervous layer of the eye- 
ball, 250, 251. 

Lig'a ment (Latin, Ugare, to bind). The tough bands or sheets of tis- 
sue which cover the joints and bind the ends of the bones together, 
. 43, 44, 46. 

Limbs. The extremities of the human body attached to the trunk on 
each side, above and below ; there are two upper and two lower 
limbs, 18. 

Liq'uor (Latin, liquere, to be liquid). A name given to strong alcoholic 
fluids, such as whiskey, brandy, rum, etc., 163, 164, 166. 

Little Finger. The smallest finger ; situated on the opposite side of 
the hand from the thumb, 18. 

Lungs. The organ of breathing, occupying the greater part of the 
cavity of the chest, 130, 131, 132, 145, 149. 

Lymph (Latin, lympha, pure water). The colorless or white fluid con- 
tained in the lymphatics, 117, 118. 

Lymphat'ics (Latin, lympha, pure water). The small vessels which 
rim from the tissues and finally empty into two large veins in the 
neck ; contain lymph, 117, 118. 

Mag'nified (Latin, magnus, great, zindfacere, to make). Made to ap- 
pear larger than in reality, 101. 

Ma'lar (Latin, mala, the cheek). The bone which forms the promi- 
nence of the cheek, 22, 29, 30. 

Malt. Sprouting barley which has been dried by heat so as to change 
its starch into sugar ; it is used in brewing beer, 165. 

Mar'row. A soft, fatty substance contained in the central cavity of 
bones, 24. 



GLOSSARY. 273 

Medul'la (Latin, medulla, marrow, pith). The portion of the brain 
which connects it with the spinal cord, 217, 218, 219, 221. 

Mkta car its (Greek, meta, beyond, and kurpos, the wrist). That 
part of the skeleton of the hand between the wrist and the fingers, 
20, 22, 35. 

Meta tab' BUS (Greek, meta, beyond, and tarsos, ankle). That part of 
the skeleton of the foot between the heel and the toes, 20, 22, 36. 

Micro sgope (Greek, mikros, small, and skopein, to view). An optical 
instrument, consisting of a combination of lenses, used to view ob- 
jects which are too small to be seen by the naked eye, 101. 

Middle Finger. The finger placed midway between the thumb and 
little finger ; the third finger, 18. 

Mineral (Latin, mina, a mine). Derived from the inorganic or life- 
less world ; such as the rocks, 64. 

Molars (Latin, vwlere, to grind in a mill). The rear three teeth in 
both jaws, used in grinding the food into small particles, 77. 

Mor'phine (Greek, Morpheus, the god of sleep). A white substance 
which constitutes the narcotic principle in opium, 201, 202. 

Mu'cous Mem'brane (Latin, mucosus, from mucus, slime, and mem- 
brcwia, a skin). The soft layer of tissue which lines the alimentary 
and breathing channels ; secretes mucus, 81. 

Mucus (Latin, mucus, slime). A slippery substance secreted by the 
mucous membranes to keep them moist, 82. 

Mus'cles (Latin, musculus, a muscle). The fleshy organs which move 
the various parts of the body, 46, 47. 

Nar cot'ic (Greek, narke, numbness). A drug w r hich relieves pain and 
produces sleep ; when given in large quantity, produces insensi- 
bility and even death, 194, 202. 

Na'sal (Latin, nasus, the nose). Pertaining to the nose, 22, 29, 30, 
255. 

Near-sighted. A form of weak sight in which objects can only be 
seen clearly when held very close, 256. 

Nerves (Latin, nervus, a nerve). The thread-like bundles of fibres 
which run from the brain and spinal cord to different parts of the 
body and establish communication, 52, 214, 219, 223. 

Ni'tro gen (Latin, nitrum, nitre, and genere, to produce). The gas 
which forms four-fifths of the atmosphere ; serves to dilute the 
oxygen, 102. 

Nostril. One of the two oval apertures at the front of the nose 
through which air is drawn, 244. 



274 GLOSSARY. 

Oc'ciput (Latin, oc, back, and caput, the head). The hind part of the 

head or of the skull, 20, 22. 
Oc cip'i tal (Latin, oc, back, and caput, the head). Referring to the 

back part of the head, 27, 29. 
Oc'u list (Latin, oculus, the eye). One who treats diseases of the eye, 

253. 
(E soph'a gtjs (Greek, oiso (future of), to carry, and phagein, to eat). 

The passage for food, leading from the throat to the stomach, 75, 

79, 80, 129". 
O'pi tjm. A narcotic drug obtained from the fruit of the poppy-plant, 

200. 
Op'tic (Greek, opticus). Pertaining to sight. Optic nerve, the nerve of 

sight, 250, 253. 
Okb'its (Latin, orbis, a circle). The cavities in which the eyes are 

placed, 30, 249. 
Op/gan (Latin, organum, an organ). A part of the body which per- 
forms some special work ; the eye is the organ of sight, 15. 
Ox'y gen (Greek, oxus, acid, and genein, to produce). An important 

gas which forms one-fifth of the atmosphere, and serves to sustain 

life, 102, 103, 110, 134, 135, 145. 

Pan'cre as (Greek, pan, all, and Tcreas, flesh). An important organ of 
digestion, situated in the abdominal cavity and pouring its secre- 
tion, the pancreatic fluid, into the small intestine, 75, 90. 

Pa ral'y sis (Greek, para, beside, and luein, to loosen). Loss of the 
power of moving a greater or lesser number of muscles, 53, 205. 

Paralyzed (Greek, para, beside, and luein, to loosen). Affected with 
loss of the power of moving a greater or lesser number of the mus- 
cles, 53, 205. 

Pa ri'e tal (Latin, paries, a wall). A name given to the two bones 
which form the roof of the skull, 27, 29, 42. 

Pa rot'id (Greek, para, beside, and ous, the ear). A gland situated be- 
low and in front of the ear ; secretes part of the saliva, 78. 

Pa tel'la (Latin, patina, a pan). The knee-pan, 20, 22, 36. 

Pec'to ralis (Latin, pectus, the breast). The triangular muscle on 
each side of the front of the chest, which draws the arm inward, 54, 
55. 

Pel' vis (Latin, pelvis, a basin). The bony basin at the lower part of the 
trunk to which the thigh-bones are attached, 22, 32. 

Pep'sin (Greek, pepsis, digestion). A substance present in the gastric 
juice, which digests fleshy food, 83. 



glossary. 275 

Peri oar'di dm (Greek, peri, around, and kardia, the heart). The sue 

which surrounds the heart, 107. 
PSBI Ob'tb Ull (Greek, pert, around, and osteon, a bone). A tough 

membrane closely covering the bones, 24. 
Peritoneum (Greek, peri, around, and teinein, to stretch). The 

smooth membrane which covers the abdominal organs and lines the 

cavity of the abdomen, 81, 86. 
Per spi ra'tion (Latin, per, through, and spirare, to breathe). The 

watery fluid given off from the skin ; when visible it is called sen- 
sible ; when invisible, insensible. The sweat, 149, 235. 
Pha lan'ges — Plural of phalanx (Greek, phalanx, a rank). The small 

bones forming the fingers and toes, 20, 22, 35, 36. 
Pharynx (Greek, pharugx, the throat). The cavity at the back of the 

mouth through which the food passes on its way to the oesophagus 

or gullet ; the throat, 75. 
Physi ol'o gy (Greek, phusis, nature, and logos, a discourse). The 

study of how beings live, 13. 
Plas'ma (Greek, plassein, to mould). The liquid part of the blood, 100, 

102. 
Pleura (Greek, pleura, the side). The smooth membrane which cov- 
ers the lungs and lines the cavity of the chest, 133. 
Pores (Latin, poms, a passage). The minute openings in the skin 

through which the perspiration escapes, 145, 149, 235, 238. 
Pul'mo na ry (Latin, pulmo, a lung). Pertaining to the lungs, 109. 
Pulp (Latin, pulpa, pulp). The soft material which fills the central 

space in the teeth, 76. 
Pulse (Latin, pulsus, the pulse). The beating of the arteries, 113. 
Pupil (Latin, pupilla, pupil). The opening in the iris through which 

light passes into the interior of the eye, 251. 
Py lo'rus (Greek, puloros, a gate-keeper). The opening in the stomach 

by which food passes into the intestines, 75, 80, 85. 

Ra'di us (Latin, radius, a rod). The outer bone of the forearm, 20, 22, 34. 

Reason (Latin, ratio, reason). The power by which we distinguish 
right from wTong and are able to employ proper means for the at- 
tainment of particular ends, 220. 

Reflex Action (Latin, re, back, and fleeter e, to turn). Actions ex- 
cited without our being conscious of them, 223. 

Re spire' (Latin, re, again, and spirare, to breathe). To breathe, 125. 

Respi ra'tion (Latin, re, again, and spirare, to breathe). The act of 
breathing, 125. 



276 GLOSSARY. 

Rett na (Latin, rete, a net). The innermost or nervous layer of the 
eyeball which receives the impressions of sight, 250, 253. 

Rib. One of the long, slender bones inclosing the chest, 20, 30, 33. 

Ring Finger. The finger next to the little finger, upon which rings 
are usually worn, 18. 

Sag'it tal (Latin, sagiila, an arrow). Pertaining to an arrow ; a name 
given to the suture which unites the parietal bones, because it meets 
the coronal suture as an arrow meets the bow, 42. 

Sa li'va (Latin, saliva, spittle). The liquid secreted by the glands near 
the mouth, emptied into this cavity and serving to keep the mouth 
moist and to form a mass with the food ; the spittle, 78, 247. 

Sal'i va ry. Pertaining to saliva or spittle, 78. 

Scalp (Latin, scalpere, to carve). The skin covering the top of the 
head, 17. 

Scap'u la (Latin). The shoulder-blade, 20, 22, 32, 34. 

Scarf' skin. The outer layer of the skin, 234. 

Scent (Latin, sentire, to smell). Odor ; smell, 246. 

Sclerotic (Greek, skleros, hard). The firm, white, outer layer of the 
eyeball, 250. 

Sen sa'tion (Latin, sentire, to feel). Feeling caused by external ob- 
jects. Nerves of sensation are those which carry impressions of 
touch, pain, heat, etc., from the various organs of the body to the 
brain, 223, 233. 

Senses (Latin, sentire, to feel). The faculty of obtaining information 
of the exterior world by means of certain organs ; the five senses 
are, feeling, seeing, hearing, smelling, and tasting, 232. 

Sen si tive (Latin, sentire, to feel). Having a high degree of feeling, 233. 

Skel'e-ton (Greek, sJceUein, to dry up). The system of bones which 
constitutes the framework, 20, 21, 22, 47. 

Skull. The bones of the head taken collectively, 27, 28, 29. 

Sole (Latin, soled). The under surface of the foot, 17, 18, 36. 

Sol'u ble (Latin, solvere, to dissolve). Capable of being dissolved in a 
fluid. 

Spe'cial Senses (Latin, specialise a particular kind). The sense of 
taste, smell, sight, and hearing, as distinguished from the general 
one of feeling, 232. 

Spinal (Latin, spina, the spine). Relating to the spine or backbone. 
Spinal canal, the canal running through the back part of the back- 
bone or spine, in which is contained the soft bar of nervous tissue 
called the spinal cord, 22, 30, 32, 214, 221, 222. 



GLOSSARY. 277 

Spleen (Latin, splen), A large, Hat body, composed largely <>r blood, 
placed on the left side of the abdominal cavity, 75j 93. 

Squint. The condition of being cross-eyed, 252. 

STARCH. The white grains found in wheat, potatoes, and many other 
plants, 64, 65, 158, 161. 

Ster'num (Greek, sternon, the breast). The breast-bone, 20, 22, 32, 34. 

Stim'u lant (Latin, stimulare, to incite). Anything which produces an 
increase of action in the system or any part of it, 66, 154, 183. 

Stom'acii (Greek, stoma, an entrance). The receptacle for the food, 
placed between the lower end of the gullet and the beginning of the 
intestines, 75, 80, 81. 

Sublingual (Latin, sub, under, and lingua, the tongue). Situated 
under the tongue. Sublingual glands, two salivary glands placed 
underneath the tongue, 79. 

Sub max'il la ry (Latin, sub, under, and mala, jaw). Situated beneath 
the jaw. Submaxillary glands, tw r o salivary glands placed under- 
neath the lower jaw, 79. 

Suture (Latin, suere, to sew). The line of union between the bones 
of the skull, 41, 42. 

Syn o'vi al (Latin, ovum, an egg). Relating to the fluid found in 
joints. Synovial fluid, the fluid secreted in joints to permit of easy 
motion. It is formed by a sac knowm as the synovial membrane, 43. 

Sys'tem (Latin, systema). A collection of parts of the body performing 
the same function ; for instance, all the arteries of the body taken 
collectively are known as the arterial system. The term system is 
also used to denote the body as a whole, 211. 

Tarsus (Greek, tarsos, the ankle). The solid, hind part of the foot 
which is joined to the leg, 20, 22, 36. 

Temple (Latin, tempus, time). A spot on the side of the head, just in 
front of the ear, so called because the hair begins to turn gray in 
this situation, at the approach of age, 28. 

Tempo ral (Latin, tempus, time). Pertaining to the temple, 28, 29, o>). 

Ten don (Latin, tendere, to stretch). The strong, fibrous part of a mus- 
cle by which it is attached to surrounding parts, especially bone, 48. 

Tiier mom'e ter (Greek, thermos, hot, and metron, measure). An in- 
strument used to measure the intensity of heat, 146. 

Thigh. The thick, fleshy portion of the lower extremity, between the 
lower end of the trunk and the knee, 17, 18. 

Tiro' rax (Greek, thorax, a breast-plate). The chest, 18, 20, 22, 33. 

Thumb. The short, thick finger ; the first from the outer side, 18, 22. 



278 GLOSSARY. 

Tib i a (Latin). The inner bone of the leg, 20, 22, 36. 

Tis'sue (Latin, texere, to weave). A form of material of the body, 
composed of various elementary substances, such as cells, fibres, 
nerves, blood-vessels, etc., closely connected with each other, 15. 

To bac'co (Indian, tabaco, the tube, or pipe, in which the Indians smoked 
tobacco). A plant much used for smoking, chewing, and snuffing, 
117, 194. 

Tra'che a (Greek, trachus, rough). The windpipe ; the canal which 
conveys air to the lungs, 126, 129, 132. 

Train (Latin, trahere, to draw). To prepare the body for extraordi- 
nary feats of strength or endurance, 58, 178. 

Tri'ceps (Latin, tria, three, and caput, head). The large muscle on the 
back of the arm ; so called because it is formed above of three por- 
tions, 53, 55. 

Trunk (Latin, truncus, trunk). The central part of the body, to which 
head and limbs are attached, 18. 

Tu'bule (Latin, tubus, a pipe). A small tube, 82, 83. 

Ul'na (Latin, ulna, elbow). The inner bone of the forearm, 20, 22, 34. 

Valve (Latin, valva, a folding-door). A lid or cover so formed as to 

open in one direction and close in the other, 111, 112. 
Ve'ge ta ble (Latin, vegetare, to enliven). Relating to plants, 64, 66. 
Vein (Latin, vena, vein). One of the blood-vessels which receives 

blood from the capillaries and returns it to the heart, 99, 112, 113, 
Venti la'tion (Latin, veniulus, a slight wind). The act of removal of 

impure air and admission of pure air, 135. 
Ven'tri cles (Latin, ventriculus, dim. of venter, the belly). The two 

lower and larger cavities of the heart, 107, 108. 
Ver'te bra (Latin, vertere, to turn). One of the bones which make up 

the spine or backbone, 31. 
Vit're ous (Latin, vitrum, glass). Like glass. Vitreous humor, the 

transparent, jelly-like substance which fills the eyeball, behind the 

lens, 251. 
Vo'cal (Latin, vox, voice). Relating to the voice-sounds ; weal cords, 

the bands of membrane existing in the larynx, which produce the 

voice-sounds by their vibration, 127, 128, 129. 
Vol'un ta ry (Latin, voluntas, will). Produced by an act of the will, 49. 

Wind'pipe. The passage by which air reaches the lungs. The trachea, 

126, 129, 132. 
Yeast. A substance added to starchy or sugary liquids to produce 

fermentation, 67, 160, 161. 



INDEX. 



Abdomen, 17, 18, 34, 266 
Absinthe, 166, 205 

habit, 205 
Absorption, 91, 266 
Acetous fermentation, 162 
Achilles, tendon of, 56 
Adam's apple, 126, 266 
Air, 102 
changes produced in, by breath- 
ing, 134, 135 
impure, effects of, 135 
purification of, 135 
Air-passages, 129, 130, 243 
Air-spaces, 132 
Air- vesicles, 132 
Alcohol, 156, 162, 164, 194, 266 
and crime, 181 
and digestion, 93, 169 
and the expectancy of life, 179 
as a food, 169 
as a medicine, 168 
discovery of, 156 
effects of, on arteries, 117, 173 
on the brain, 174 
on the circulation, 116, 173 
on the heart, 116, 172 
on the heat of the body, 176 
on the intestines, 170 
on the liver, 90, 170 
on the lungs, 173 
on the muscles, 57, 171, 177 
on the nerves, 175 
on the nervous system, 174 



Alcohol, effects of, on the power 
to resist disease, 178 
on the power to recover from 

accidents, 178 
on the sight, 176 
on the skeleton, 26, 172 
on the spinal cord, 174 
on the stomach, 84, 93, 169 
on the system, 167 
on the tissues, 169 
on training, 178 
habit, 180 

cost of, 181 
lamps, 157 
manufacture of, 158 
moral effects of, 168, 180 
properties of, 157 
questions on, 190 
synopsis of, 185 
uses of, 157 
Alcoholic drinks, 156, 163 
effects of, on system, 167 
manufacture of, 165 
moral effects of, 180 
varieties of, 164 
Alcoholic fermentation, 162 
Ales, 165 

Alimentary canal, 74, 75, 266 
Anatomy, 13, 266 
Animals and plants, differences 
between, 15, 64 
similarity in structure of, 211 
Animals, carnivorous, 64 



280 



INDEX. 



Animals, difference in food of, 64 

herbivorous, 64 

warm-blooded and cold-blooded, 
146 
Ankle, 17, 18 

bones of, 20 
Anvil, 260, 261 
Aorta, 111, 112, 266 
Apoplexy, 117, 173 
Apple, Adam's, 126, 266 
Aqueous humor of eye, 250, 251, 

267 
Arch of foot, 17, 18, 36 
Arm, 17, 18 

bone of, 20, 22, 34 
Arm-pit, 17, 18 
Arrack, 166 
Arteries, 99, 112, 267 

effects of alcohol on, 117 
Artery, pulmonary, 109 
Auricles of heart, 108, 267 

Backbone, 31 
Ball-and-socket joint, 44 
Bathing, 238 

after meals, 92 
Baths, cold, 238 

Russian, 238 

Turkish, 238 

warm, 237 
Beats of heart, 108 
Beef, 67 
Beers, 164, 165 
Beings, living, 14 
Biceps, 51, 53, 54, 55, 267 
Bicuspid teeth, 77, 267 
Bile, 89, 171 

action of, 89 
Birds, blood of, 102 
Bitters, 167 
Bleeding, 115 



Bleeding, treatment of, 115, 116 
Blindness, 176, 198 
Blood and circulation, 100 

questions on, 122 

synopsis of, 119 
Blood and tissues, changes in, pro- 
duced by breathing, 134 
Blood, appearance of, 100 

clotting of, 104 

color of, 100 

composition of, 100 

course of, 108, 109, 110 

difference between, in arteries 
and in veins, 100, 103 

importance of, 100 

purification of, 110 

serum of, 104 
Blood-clots, value of, 104 
Blood-corpuscles, 100 
Blood-globules, 100, 101 

red, 101 
use of, 102 

white, 101 
Blood-heat, 146 
Blood of other animals, 102 
Blood-plasma, 100, 102 
Blood-vessels, 99, 112 
Bod}', parts of, 15, 16, 17 

subdivisions of, 15, 16, 17 
Body-heat, 143, 146 

in sickness, 147 

regulation of, 147 
Bone, composition of, 24 

structure of, 24 
Bones, forms of, 23 

number of, 23 

uses of, 21 

of the cranium, 27 

of the ear, 260 

of the face, 27, 28 

of the head, 27 



INDEX. 



281 



Bones of the lower limbs, 35 

of (lie skull, 27 

Of the trunk, 30 

of the upper limbs, 34 
Bowels, 75, 85, 207 
Brain, 213, 215, 216, 217, 221 

coverings of, 215 

divisions of, 217, 221 

effects of alcohol on the, 174 

functions of, 220 

size of, 215 

training of, 220 

weight of, 215 
Brandy, 166 
Bread, 67, 161 

Breast-bone, 20, 22, 30, 32, 34 
Breathing and smelling channels, 

243 
Breathing, changes which it pro- 
duces in blood and tissues, 
134 

changes which it produces in the 
air, 134 

effect of tight clothing upon, 
138 

frequency of, 133 

involuntary nature of, 133 

movements of chest in, 133 

mouth, 133 

organs of, 125 
synopsis of, 139 
questions on, 141 
Bridge of nose, 17 
Bronchi, 126, 130, 132, 267 
Bronchial tubes, 126, 130, 132, 267 
Bronchus, left, 130, 132 

right, 130, 132 
Brows, 249, 250 
Bunion, 25, 267 
Burning of fuel, results of, 144 
Butter, m y 67 



Cafpbin, 282 

Calf of leg, 17 

Canal, alimentary, 74, 75 

of ear, 259, 260 

from liver and gall-bladder, 87 

from pancreas, 88 

spinal, 30, 31 
Canine teeth, 77, 267 
Capillaries, 110, 112, 113, 267 
Capsular ligaments, 43, 44, 267 
Carbonic-acid gas, 103, 110, 134, 

135, 159, 267 
Care of circulation, 116 

of ears, 263 

of eyes, 255 

of hair, 240 

of muscles, 56 

of nails, 240 

of skin, 180 

of teeth, 78 
Carnivorous animals, 64, 268 
Carpus, 20, 22, 35, 268 
Cartilage, 25, 43, 46, 268 
Casting off refuse materials, 145 
Cavities of heart, 107 
Cells, 16, 268 

of brain, 219 

of liver, 89 

of stomach, 82 
Cerebellum, 217,218, 219, 221, 268 
Cerebrum, 217, 218, 219, 221, 268 

gray and white portions of, 218 

hemispheres of, 216, 218 
Cheek, 17 

bone of, 22 
Cheese, 68 
Chest, 17, 18, 20, 22, 33, 268 

deformed, 25, 138 

movements of, in breathing, 133 

muscle of, 55 
Chewing-gum, effects of, 79, 92 



282 



INDEX. 



Chin, 17 
Chloral, 204, 268 

habit, 205 

hydrate, 204 
Chloroform, 206 

habit, 206 
Chocolate, 66, 182, 183 
Choroid coat of eye, 250, 253, 268 
Cider, 162, 164, 165 
Cigarette smoking, 199 
Circulation, 100, 105, 110, 268 

and exercise, 116 

care of, 116 

course of, 109, 110 

discovery of, 108 

effects of alcohol on, 116, 173 

effects of tobacco on, 117 

rapidity of, 114 

through lungs, 109, 110 
Clavicle, 20, 22, 30, 32, 34, 227 
Clot, 104, 268 
Clothing, 147, 148, 239 

woollen, 147 
Clotting of blood, 104 
Coats of eye, 250 

of intestines, 85 

of stomach, 80 
Coca leaves, 184 

wine of, 185 
Cocaine, 184 

habit, 185 
Coccyx, 31 
Cocoa, 182, 183 
Coffee, 66, 154, 182 

effects of, 182 

effects of, on nervous system, 
183 

injurious effects of, 155 
Cold-blooded animals, 146 
Cold, effects of, 149 

in head, 245 



Collar-bone, 20, 22, 30, 32, 34 
Color of hair, 237 

of skin, 234 
Column, spinal, 30 
Combination of all forms of food, 

necessity for, in man, 66 
Combustion, 143, 268 
Contraction of muscles, 51 
Cooking, methods of, 68 
Cool, keeping, in summer, 148 
Cord, spinal, 31, 52, 214, 221, 222 

effects of alcohol on, 174 

functions of, 223 

injuries to, 222 

membranes of, 222 

structure of, 222 
Cordials, 164, 167 
Cords, vocal, 127, 128, 129 
Cornea, 250, 269 
Corns, 25, 268 
Coronal suture, 42, 269 
Corpuscles, blood, 100, 269 
Cosmetics, 239, 269 
Course of blood, 108 

of inspired air, 125 
Cranial nerves, 219, 269 
Cranium, bones of, 27, 269 
method of union, 28, 29 
Cream, 67 
Cross-eye, 252 
Crown of head, 16, 269 

of tooth, 76 
Crystalline, 250, 251, 269 

Dandruff, 234, 269 
Deaf-mutes, 262, 269 
Deformed chest, 25, 138 

foot, 26 
Delirium tremens, 176, 269 
Dentine, 76, 269 
Diaphragm, 34, 56, 269 



INDEX. 



283 



Digestion, 74, 91, 269 
and excitement, 92 

effects of alcohol upon, 93 

effects of tobacco on, 93 

habits which arc injurious to, 92 

of fatty food, 87, 91 

of fleshy food, 82, 87, 91 

of starchy food, 79, 87, 91 

organs of, 74, 75 

questions on, 97 

synopsis of, 93 
Dipsomania, 181 

Discovery of action of the stom- 
ach, 84 

of circulation, 108 
Dislocations, 44, 269 
Distillation, 163 
Distilled spirits, 163, 164 
Dover's powder, 202 
Dress, effect of, on skeleton, 25 
Drinking-water, 69 

from wells, 69 

impure or poisoned, 69 

poisoning by lead, 71 

purification of, 70 

purity of, 69 
Drinks, alcoholic, 156, 163, 164 

effects of, 167 

non-alcoholic, 157 
Drum of ear, 259, 260 
Drum membrane of ear, 260, 262, 

269 
Drunkenness, 175 
Duct, nasal, 254, 255, 269 

tear-, 254, 255 
Duodenum, 75, 85, 270 
Dyspepsia, 78, 170, 270 

Ear, bones of, 260 
canal of, 259, 260 
care of, 263 



Ear, communication with throat 
260 

drum of, 260, 262 

drum-membrane of, 259, 262 

internal, 261 

middle, 259 

outer, 259 

parts of, 259 

questions on, 264 

synopsis of, 263 
Ear-wax, 259, 263 
Easily digested food, 84 
Eating excessively, 92 

quickly, 92 
Eggs, 68 
Elbow, 17, 18 
Elbow-joint, 22 
Elixirs, 167 

Enamel of tooth, 76, 270 
Epidemics, 70, 270 
Epiglottis, 127, 248, 270 
Eustachian tube, 261, 270 
Excessive eating, 92 
Excitement and digestion, 92 
Eye, 232, 249, 250 

care of, 255 

choroid coat of, 250, 253 

coats of, 250 

effects of alcohol on, 176 

fluids of, 250, 251 

good light for, 255 

humors of, 250, 251 

interior of, 250, 251, 254 

lens of, 250, 251 

muscles of, 252 

nerve of, 250, 251, 253 

nerve-coat of, 250, 251, 253 

parts of, 250 

protections to, 249 

pupil of, 250, 251 

questions on, 258 



284 



INDEX. 



Eye, resemblance of, to photogra- 
pher's camera, 252 

rest for, 255 

sclerotic coat of, 250 

synopsis of, 257 
Eyebrows, 249, 250 
Eyelashes, 249, 250 
Eyelids, 249, 250 
Eye-tooth, 77 
Exercise, 56, 57, 239 

and muscles, 56 

and the circulation, 116 

amount of, 57 

forms of, 57 

immediately after meals, 92 

necessity for, 57 
Expression of the face, effect of 

muscles on, 53 
Expiration, 125, 128, 270 

Face, 16, 17 

bones of, 27, 28 

expressions of, 53 
Painting, 114, 270 

treatment of, 115 
Fang of tooth, 76, 270 
Farinaceous food, 64, 270 
Far-sightedness, 256, 270 
Fat, 48, Q6 

digestion of, 91 

uses of, 49 
Fatty food, 66 
Feet, deformed, 25, 26 
Femur, 20, 22, 34, 36, 270 
Fermentation, 159, 162 
Fibres, 16, 47, 270 
Fibula, 20, 22, 35, 36, 270 
Filth, results of, 237 
Filters, 71 
Fingers, 18, 35 

bones of, 20, 22 



Fingers, names of, 18 
Fish, 66 

Fishes, blood of, 102 
Flesh, 47, 229 
Fleshy food, 64, 270 
digestion of, 83, 87, 91 
by stomach, 83 
by intestines, 87 
Fluid, synovial, 43 
Fluids of the eye, 250, 251 
Fly-trap, Venus', 14 
Food and drink, 63, 154 
essential to life, 63 
questions on, 72 
synopsis of, 71 
Food and oxygen produce heat and 

work, 144, 145 
Food of plants, 64 

and animals, difference in, 64 
Food, different kinds of, required 
by man, 64, 66 
easily digested, 84 
farinaceous, 64 
fatty, 49, 66, 87 

digestion of, 91 
fatty, digestion of, in small in- 
testine, 87 
fleshy, 64 
digestion of, 83, 87, 91 
digestion of, in small intestine, 
87 
heavy, 84 
indigestible, 84 
light, 84 

passage for, 129,. 130, 243 
proper, 68 
results of combustion of, 144, 

145 
some of simplest forms of, 66 
starchy, 64 
digestion of, 79, 87, 91 



[NDEX. 



285 



Food, digestion of, in small intes- 
tine, 87 

sugary, 66 

variety in, 08 

vegetable, 64 
Foot,' 17, 18, 26 

arch of, 17, 18, 22 

bones of, 20, 22, 35, 36 

instep of, 17, 18 

sole of, 17, 18 
Forearm, 17, 18 

bones of, 20, 22, 34 
Forehead, 17, 22 
Fracture of bones, 25, 26, 270 
Frontal bone, 22, 27, 29, 270 
Fuel, results of burning of, 144 
Function, 15, 211, 270 

Gall, 89, 270 
Gall-bladder, 75, 88, 89 

canal from, 87 
Gas, carbonic acid, 103, 159 
Gastric juice, 82, 271 

function of, 83 
Gastric tubules, 82, 83 
Gelatin, 24, 271 
Germs, 160 
Gin, 166 
Glands, 78, 271 

lachrymal, 254 

parotid, 78 

salivary, 78 

sublingual, 79 

submaxillary, 79 

tear, 254 
Gliding- joints, 43 
Globules, blood, 100, 101 
Gout, 90, 271 
Granular lids, 256, 271 
Green vegetables, 66 
Gristle, 25, 43, 46, 259, 271 



Groin, 17, 18, 271 

Gullet, 75, 79,80, 129, 271 
Gum-chewing, 79, 92 

effects of, 79, 92 

Habit, alcohol, 180 

absinthe, 205 

chloral, 204, 205 

chloroform, 206 

cocaine, 185 

hashish, 205 

morphine, 202 

opium, 202 

the tobacco, 196, 197, 200 
Habits which are injurious to di- 
gestion, 92 
Hair, 236 

care of, 240 

color of, 237 

parts of, 236 

root of, 236 
Hammer, 260 
Hand, 18, 20, 22, 35 
Hangnails, 240, 271 
Harvey, 108 
Hashish, 205 

habit, 205 
Head, 16, 17 

bones of, 27 

cold in, 245 
Hearing, manner of, 262 

nerve of, 261 

questions on, 264 

sense of, 263 

synopsis of, 263 
Heart, 106, 107, 109 

auricles of, 108 

beats of, 108 

cavities of, 107 

effects of alcohol on, 116, 172 

effects of tobacco on, 117, 198 



286 



INDEX. 



Heart failure, 172 

form of, 107 

function of, 108 

palpitation of, 117, 198 

situation of, 106 

tobacco, 198 

valves of, 111, 112 

ventricles of, 108 
Heart and blood - vessels, 100, 
106 

questions on, 122 

synopsis of, 119 
Heart-beats, frequency of, 108 
Heat and work, the result of food 

and oxygen, 145 
Heat, blood, 146 

of skin, 146 

of the body, 143, 146 
in sickness, 147 
regulation of, 147, 238, 235 
regulation of, by the skin, 148, 
233, 235 

questions on, 151 

synopsis of, 150 
Heavy food, 84 
Heel, 17, 22, 36 
Hemispheres of cerebrum, 218, 

271 
Hemorrhage, 116, 271 
Herbivorous animals, 64, 271 
Hinge-joints, 43 
Hip, 17, 18, 271 
Hip-bones, 20, 22, 30, 32 
Hip-joint, 22 
Home-made wines, 166 
Hops, 165 

Humerus, 20, 22, 34, 271 
Humor, aqueous, 250, 251, 271 

vitreous, 250, 251 
Humors of the eye, 250, 251 
Hygiene, 13, 271 



Ice-water, 92, 149 
Images, 253 
Important muscles, 55 
Impure air, effects of, 135 
Incisor teeth, 77, 271 
Index-finger, 18, 22, 272 
Indigestible food, 84, 272 
Indigestion, 78, 92, 272 
Injurious habits to digestion, 92 
Insensible perspiration, 235 
Inspiration, 125, 127, 272 
Inspired air, course of, 125, 272 
Instep of foot, 17, 18, 36, 272 
Insurance, life, 179 
Intellect, 220 
Intelligence, 220, 272 
Internal ear, 261 
Intestines, 75, 85, 272 

attachments of, 85 

coats of, 85 

effects of alcohol on the, 170 

large, 75, 85 

motions of, 86 

projections from inner surface 
of, 86, 87 

small, 75, 85 
openings into, 87 

subdivisions of, 85 

work of, 86, 145 
Intoxication, 156, 175 
Introduction, 13 

questions on, 19 

synopsis of, 18 
Involuntary muscles, 50, 272 
Involuntary nature of breathing, 

133 
Iris, 250, 251, 272 

Jaundice, 89, 272 
Jaw, lower, 22, 29, 30 
upper, 22, 29, 30 



INPKX. 



287 



Joints. 41,4'2, 43, 41, 272 

accidents to, 44 

ball-and-socket, 44 

classes of, 41 

gliding, 43 

hinge, 43 

immovable, 41, 42 

movable, 41, 42, 43 

pivot, 44 

questions on, 45 

slightly movable, 41, 42 

synopsis of, 45 

varieties of, 43 
Judgment, 220, 272 
Juice, gastric, 82 
function of, 83 

pancreatic, 90 

Kidneys, 145, 272 
Knee, 17, 18 
Knee-pan, 20, 22, 35, 36 

Lachrymal bone, 29, 272 

duct, 254, 255, 272 

gland, 254, 272 
Lacteals, 91, 118, 119, 273 
Lambdoid suture, 42, 273 
Large intestine, 75, 85 
Larynx, 125, 126, 132, 273 

form of, 125 

parts of, 125 

situation of, 125 
Lashes, 249, 250 
Laudanum, 200 
Lead in drinking-water, 71 
Leaf, skeleton of, 212 
Lean, 48, 273 
Leg, 17, 18 

bones of, 20, 22, 35, 36 
Lens of the eye, 250, 251, 273 
Lids, 249, 250 

granular, 256 



Life insurance, 1 79 

Ligaments, 43, 46, 273 

capsular, 43 
Light food, 84 
Light in reading, 255 
Limbs, 18, 273^ 

lower, 18 

upper, 18 
Liquors, 163, 164, 166 
Little finger, 18, 273 
Liver, 75, 88 

cells, 89 

drunkard's, 90, 171 

effects of alcohol on the, 171 

lobes of, 89 

unhealthy, 90, 171 

uses of, 89, 171 

and gall-bladder, canal from, 87 
Living beings, 14 
Lobes of the liver, 89 
Lower jaw, 22, 29, 30 
Lungs, 130, 132, 145, 149, 273 

circulation through, 109, 110 

effects of tobacco on, 138 

shape of, 130 

structure, 131 
Lymph, 117, 118, 273 
Lymphatics, 117, 118, 273 

Malar bone, 22, 29, 30, 273 

Malt, 165, 273 

Malt liquors, 164, 165 

Marrow, 24, 273 

Meat, 64, 66 

Medulla, 217, 218, 219, 221, 274 

Membrane, mucous, 81 

synovial, 43 
Membranes of brain, 215 
Membranes of spinal cord, 222 
Memory, 220 
Metacarpus, 20, 22, 35, 274 



288 



INDEX. 



Metatarsus, 20, 22, 36, 274 
Methods of cooking, 68 
Microscope, 101, 274 
Middle ear, 259 
Middle finger, 18, 274 
Milk, 67, 91 
appearance of, under the micro- 
scope, 67 

composition of, 67 

skimmed, 68 

source of, 67 

teeth, 74 
Mind, 220 
Mixed muscles, 50 
Moisture, effects upon heat, 149 
Molar teeth, 77, 274 
Morphine, 201, 202, 274 

habit, 202 
Motion, nerves of, 223 
Mouth, 74, 75 
Mouth-breathing, 133 
Mucus, 82, 274 

Mucous membrane, 81, 86, 274 
Multiple stomachs in some ani- 
mals, 84 
Muscles, 46, 274 

action of, 51 

and exercise, 56 

belly of, 48 

biceps, 51, 53, 54, 55 

care of, 56 

chest, 55 

contraction of, 51 

effects of alcohol on, 57, 171 

effects of tobacco on, 57 

exercise of, 56 

functions of, 47 

groups of, 53 

importance of, 55 

influence of nervous system on 
action of, 52 



Muscles, number of, 54 

of eye, 251 

of face, 53 

paralyzed, 53 

pectoralis, 54, 55 

questions on, 61 

shape of, 54 

size of, 55 

synopsis of, 59 

temporal, 55 

triceps, 53, 55 
Muscle-fibres, 47, 86 
Muscle-tendons, 48 
Muscle-tissue, 47, 82, 247 

involuntary, 50 

kinds of, 49 

mixed, 50 

voluntary, 49 
Muscular movements, complex, 53 
Mute, deaf-, 262 

Nails, 237 

care of, 240 
Narcotics, 194, 202, 274 
Nasal, 274 

bone, 22, 29, 30 

duct, 254, 255 
Near-sightedness, 256, 274 
Neck, 16, 20, 22 

of tooth, 76 
Nerves, 52, 210, 214, 219, 223 ; 274 

cranial, 219, 222 

effects of alcohol on, 175 

kinds of, 223 

of eyes, 250, 253 

of hearing, 261 

of motion, 223 

of sensation, 223 

of smell, 244, 245 

optic, 250, 253 

spinal, 221, 222 



INDKA. 



289 



Nerves, sympathetic, 220 

Nervous system, 210, 211, 221 
absence of, in plants, 212 

actions of, 214 

divisions of, 213, 221 

effects of alcohol on, 174 

effects of coffee on, 226 

effects of tea on, 226 

effects of tobacco on, 226 

functions of, 213 

most perfect in man, 213 

questions on, 230 

rapidity of action of, 215 

sympathetic, 226 

synopsis of, 227 
Nervousness, 183, 198 
Nicotine, 196 
Nitrogen, 102, 274 
Nose, 232, 243 

bone of, 22, 244 

bridge of, 17, 244 

function of, 243 

parts of, 244 

questions on, 247 

synopsis of, 247 
Nostrils, 244, 274 

Occipital bone, 27, 29, 275 

Occiput, 20, 22, 275 

Oculist, 253, 275 

(Esophagus, 75, 79, 80, 129, 275 

Oil-tubes, 236 

Old-sight, 257 

Openings into small intestine, 87 

Opiates, 200 

Opium, 200, 202 

habit, 202 
Optic, 275 

nerve, 250, 253 
Orbits, 30, 249, 275 
Organ, 15, 275 



Outer ear, 259 

Oxygen, 102, 110, 1:54, 135, 145, 
" 275 

Palm of hand, 18, 35 
Palpitation of heart, 117 
Pancreas, 75, 90, 275 

canal from, 88 
Pancreatic juice, 90 

uses of, 91 
Paralysis, 205, 2 75 
Paralyzed muscles, 53, 275 
Paregoric, 202 
Parietal bone, 27, 29, 275 

suture, 42 
Parotid gland, 78, 275 
Passage for air, 129, 130, 243 

for food, 129, 130, 243 
Patella, 20, 22, 35, 36, 275 
Pectoralis muscle, 54, 55, 275 
Pelvis, 22, 32, 275 
Pepsin, 83, 275 
Perfume, 246 
Pericardium, 107, 276 
Periosteum, 24, 276 
Peritoneum, 81, 86, 276 
Permanent teeth, 75 
Perspiration, 149, 235, 276 

insensible, 235 

sensible, 235 

uses of, 236 
Perspiration tubes, 235 
Phalanges, 20, 22, 35, 36, 276 
Pharynx, 75, 276 
Physiology, 13, 276 
Pivot-joints, 44 

Plants, absence of nervous system 
in, 212 

food of, 64 

life in, 14 

life and growth of, 135 



290 



INDEX. 



Plants and animals, difference be- 
tween, 15, 135 

difference in the food of, 15, 64, 
135 

similarity in structure of, 212 
Plasma of the blood, 100, 102, 
276 

uses of, 103 
Pleura, 133, 145, 276 
Pneumonia, 173, 178 
Poppy plant, 200 
Pores, 145, 149, 238, 276 
Porter, 165 
Powder, Dover's, 202 
Projections on inner surface of 

small intestine, 86, 87 
Proper food, 68 
Protection of windpipe, 127 
Pulmonary artery, 109, 276 
Pulp of tooth, 76, 276 
Pulse, 113 

Pupil of eye, 250, 251, 276 
Purification of the air, 135 

of blood, 110 

of drinking- w r ater, 70 
Pylorus, 75, 80, 85, 276 

Radius, 20, 22, 34, 276 

Reading, precautions in, 255, 256 

Reason, 220, 276 

Red blood-globules, 101 

use of, 102 
Reflex action, 223, 276 
Refuse materials, 144, 145 
Reptiles, blood of, 102 
Respiration, 125, 276 
Retina, 250, 251, 253, 277 
Ribs, 22, 30, 33, 277 
Ring finger, 18, 277 
Root of hair, 236 

of tooth, 76 



Rum, 163, 166 
Russian baths, 239 

Sacrum, 20 

Sagittal suture, 42, 277 
Saliva, 78, 247, 277 

uses of, 79 
Salivary glands, 78, 277 
Sap, 212 
Scalp, 17, 277 
Scapula, 20, 22, 32, 277 
Scarf-skin, 234, 277 
Scents, sweet, 246, 277 
Sclerotic coat of the eye, 250, 277 
Sensation, organ of, 232, 277 

nerves of, 223, 233 
Senses, 232, 277 

special, 232 
Sense of hearing, 232, 259 

of sight, 232, 249 

of smell, 232, 243 

of taste, 232, 247 

of touch, 232 
Sensible perspiration, 149, 235 
Serum of blood, 104 
Shoes, improper, 25, 26 
-Shoulder, 17, 18 

Shoulder-blade, 20, 22, 30, 32, 34 
Sight, effects of alcohol on, 176 

old, 257 

organ of, 249 

sense of, 232, 249 
questions on, 258 
synopsis of, 257 

weak, 256 
Skeleton, 20, 21, 22, 47, 277 

care of, 25 

front view of, 20 

of leaf, 212 

parts of, 27 

position of, 21 






INDEX. 



291 



letOD, questions on, 39 

side view of, 22 

synopsis of, 37 
Skimmed milk, 68 
Skin, 232 

a means of regulating the body- 
heat, 149, 233, 235 

as the organ of sensation, 232 

attachments of, 235 

care of, 237 

color of, 234 

heat of, 146 

necessity for, 232 

questions on, 242 

scarf, 234 

structure of, 234 

synopsis of, 241 

thickness of, 232 

throwing off water, salts, and 
poisonous matters, 145, 233 

true, 234 

uses of, 145, 149, 232 
Skull, 27, 28, 277 

bones of, 29 
Sleep, 224 

amount of, 224 

children's, 224 

uses of, 224 

time for, 224 
Sleeplessness, 225 
Small intestine, 75, 85 
Smell, nerves of, 244, 245 

sense of, 232, 243 
in lower animals, 244 
questions on, 247 
synopsis of, 246 
uses of, 245 
Smelling and breathing channels, 

243 
Smokers' sore-throat, 138, 198 
Sole of foot, 17, 18, 36, 277 



Bound, 128, 201 

Sounds, production of, 128, 261 

Spaces, air, 132 

Speaking, 129, 248 

Special senses, 232, 277 

Sphenoid bone, 29 

Spinal, 277 

canal, 31 

column, 22, 30, 31 

cord, 31, 214, 221, 222 

nerves, 221, 222 
Spine, 31 
Spirit, 157, 164 
Spleen, 75, 93, 278 
Squint, 252, 278 
Starch, 64, 65, 158, 161 

digestion of, 79, 87, 91 
Starchy food, 64 

digestion of, 79, 87, 91 
Sternum, 20, 22, 32. 34, 278 
Still, 163 

Stimulant, 66, 154, 183 
Stimulants, 154 

questions on, 190 

synopsis of, 185 
Stirrup, 260 
Stomach, 75, 80,81,278 

discovery of mode of action of, 
84 

effects of alcohol on, 84, 93, 169 

effects of tobacco on, 84 

form of, 75, 80 

multiple in some animals, 84 

openings in, 80 

structure of, 80, 81 

uses of, 83 
Stout, 165 

Sublingual gland, 79, 278 
Submaxillary gland, 79, 278 
Sugar, 65, 158 
Sugary food, 65 



292 



INDEX. 



Summer, keeping cool in, 148 
Sunstroke, 149 
Suture, coronal, 42, 278 

lambdoid, 42 

parietal, 42 

sagittal, 42 
Sutures, 41, 42 
Sweetbread, 90 
Sweet scents, 246 
Sympathetic system of nerves, 

226 
Synovial fluid, 43, 278 

membrane, 43 
System, 222, 278 

Tarsus, 20, 22, 36, 278 
Taste, sense of, 232, 247 

abuse of, 248 

questions on, 249 

synopsis of, 249 
Tea, 66, 154, 182, 183 

effects of, 183 

injurious effects of, 155, 183 
Tear-duct, 254, 255 
Tear-gland, 254 
Tear-sac, 254, 255 
Tears, 254 
Teeth, 74, 76, 77 

bicuspid, 77 

canine, 77 

care of, 78 

crown of, 76, 77 

fang of, 76, 77 

incisor, 77 

milk, 74 

molar, 77 

names of, 77 

neck of, 76, 77 

number of , 74, 75 

parts of, 76, 77 

permanent, 75, 77 



Teeth, root of, 76, 77 
structure of, 76 
temporary, 74 
uses of, 77 
wisdom, 76 
Temple, 28, 278 
Temporal bone, 28, 29, 278 

muscle, 55 
Temporary teeth, 74 
Tendon of Achilles, 56, 278 
Tendons, 48 
Thein, 182 
Theobromin, 182 
Thermometer, 146, 158 
Thigh, 17, 18, 278 
Thigh-bone, 20, 22, 35, 36 
Thorax, 18, 20, 22, 33, 278 
Thought, 220 
Throat, 74, 79 
communication with the middle 

ear, 260 
effects of tobacco on, 198 
Thumb, 18, 22, 278 
Tibia, 20, 22, 35, 36, 279 
Tight clothing, effects of, on 

breathing, 25, 138 
Tinctures, 158 
Tobacco, 117, 194 
blindness, 198 
composition of, 196 
cultivation and preparation of, 

195, 196 
effects on circulation, 117, 198 
on digestion, 93, 197 
on heart, 117, 198 
on lungs, 138, 198 
on muscles, 57, 199 
on nervous system, 198 
on sight, 198 
on skeleton, 27, 198, 199 
on svstem, 196 



INDEX. 



293 



Tobacco, effects on the power of 
endurance, 199 
on the young, 198, 199 
on throat, 198 

habit, 190, 1D7 

heart, 117, 198 

history of, 195 

injurious effects of, 197 

nervousness, 198 

oil of, 196 

poisoning, 197 
Toes, bones of, 20, 22, 36 
Tongue, 80, 232, 247, 248 

questions on, 249 

structure of, 247 

synopsis of, 249 

uses of, 247 
Tonics, 154, 167 
Touch, organ of, 232 

sense of, 232 
questions on , 242 
synopsis of, 241 
Trachea, 125, 126, 129, 132, 279 
Training, 58, 178 

of brain, 220 
Triceps muscle, 53, 55, 279 
True skin, 234 
Trunk, 18, 279 

bones of, 30 

cavities of, 18 
Tube, bronchial, 126, 130, 132 

Eustachian, 261 
Tubes, oil, 236 

perspiration, 235 
Tubule, 82, 279 
Tubules, gastric, 82, 83 
Turkish baths, 239 

ULnA, 20, 22, 34, 279 

Uxcleanliness, results of, 237 
Upper jaw, 22, 29, 30 



Vai.vk, LU,'2TO 

Valves of heart, 111, 112 

of veins, 114 
Varnishes, 158 
Vegetable food, 64, 66, 279 
Vegetables, green, 66 
Veins, 99, 112, 113, 279 

valves of, 114 
Ventilation, 135, 279 
Ventricles of heart, 108, 279 
Venus' fly-trap, 14 
Vertebra?, 31, 279 

union of, 31 
Vesicles, air, 132 
Vinegar, 162, 165 
Vinous fermentation, 162 
Vitreous, 250, 251, 279 

humor of eye, 250, 251 
Vocal cords, 127, 128, 129, 279 
Voice, production of, 128 

organ of, questions on, 141 
synopsis of, 139 
Voluntary muscles, 49, 279 

Wakefulness, 225 
Warm-blooded animals, 146 
Warmth in winter, 148 
Water, 66, 69 

ice-, 92, 149 

drinking-, 69 

of rivers, 70 
Wax of ear, 259, 263 
Weak-sight, 256 
Whiskey, 166 
White blood-globules, 101 
White of eye, 250 
Will, 220 

Wines, 163, 164, 165 
Windpipe, 125, 126, 129, 130, 279 

branches of, 126, 130, 132 

form of, 129, 132 



294 



INDEX. 



Windpipe, protection of, 127 
rings of, 126, 130, 132 
situation of, 129 

Winter, keeping warm in, 148 

Wisdom-tooth, 76 

Woollen clothing, 147 



Work and heat the results of food 

and oxygen, 144, 145 
Wort, 165 
Wrist, 18, 20, 22, 35 

Yeast, 67, 160, 161, 279 



INDUCTIVE METHODS OF TEACHING. 



ANATOMY PHYSIOLOGY 



AND 



HYGIENE 

With special reference to the effects of 
stimulants and narcotics. 

FOR USE IN PRIMARY AND INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS. 



CHARLES H. MAY, M.D., 

Chief of Eye-Clinic and Instructor in Ophthalmology, College of Physicians and Surgeons, 

Medical Department, Columbia College, N. Y.; Assistant Surgeon N. Y. Ophthalmic 

and Aural Institute ; Fellow of the N. Y. Academy of Medicine, etc. 

THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED. 



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BASED UPON THE LARGER WORK OF GANOT. 

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BY 

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Illu.stra.teci t>y Triree Colored Plates and a Large Number 

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A NEW AND IMPROVED EDITION. 

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